Usuario:Ebergerz/taller-colab

De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre


VERSION EN ESPAÑOL[editar]

La osteopatía es un tipo de medicina alternativa y pseudomedicina que enfatiza el masaje y otras manipulaciones físicas del tejido muscular y los huesos.[1]​[2]​ Su nombre deriva del griego antiguo «hueso» (ὀστέον) y «sensible a» o «que responde a» (-πάθεια).[3]​[4]​[5]​ Andrew Taylor Still, un médico estadounidense, fundó la osteopatía en 1874.[6]​[7]​[8]​

No existe evidencia convincente de su efectividad para el tratamiento del dolor musculoesquelético[9]​ y esta es limitada para el caso de ciertos dolores específicos.[10]​

Eficacia[editar]

Una revisión sistemática de 2011 sobre la manipulación osteopática "falló en producir evidencia convincente" para la eficacia en el tratamiento del dolor musculoesquelético.[9]​

El Servicio Nacional de Salud británico señala que, existe evidencia limitada que sugiere que la osteopatía puede ser efectiva para el tratamiento de ciertos tipos de dolor de cuello, hombro o espalda baja, así como para la recuperación después de operaciones de rodilla o cadera. Sin embargo, actualmente no existe buena evidencia de que sea efectiva como tratamiento para condiciones no relacionadas al sitema musculoesquelético.[10]​ También agrega que la evidencia para la efectividad de la osteopatía como tratamiento para el asma, menstruaciones dolorosas, cólicos en bebés y escoleosis es limitada o inexistente y que dada la presencia del efecto placebo, a pesar de que muchas personas reportan sentirse mejor después de un tratamiento con osteopatía no está claro que tan efectivo es realmente el tratamiento.[11]​

Tratamiento y principios[editar]

El tratamiento osteopático consiste en tratar las disfunciones, la hipermovilidad o hipomovilidad que se puedan encontrar en la columna vertebral, las articulaciones, el sistema nervioso, el sistema muscular, las vísceras, el cráneo. Busca recuperar el equilibrio corporal perdido, reactivando sus mecanismos de autocuración con diversas técnicas terapéuticas: manipulaciones articulares, técnicas de energía muscular, de movilización, de estiramiento, HVLT, funcionales, entre muchas otras. El tratamiento depende de una evaluación corporal completa, del tipo de lesión y del paciente. Ningún tratamiento es igual a otro y se debe seguir siempre un enfoque personal único.

La osteopatía se basa en la creencia de que todos los sistemas del cuerpo trabajan conjuntamente, están relacionados, y por tanto los trastornos en un sistema pueden afectar el funcionamiento de los otros.[12]​ Es por tanto una práctica de tipo holístico. El tratamiento, que se denomina manipulación osteopática, consiste en un sistema de técnicas prácticas orientadas a aliviar el dolor, restaurar funciones y promover la salud y el bienestar.

Existen ocho principios básicos en la osteopatía, los cuales son ampliamente enseñados en la comunidad osteopática internacional:

  • Holismo: el cuerpo funciona como una unidad, no como un conjunto de órganos.
  • Relación forma-función: la estructura de un órgano influye en su función y viceversa.
  • Homeostasis: el cuerpo posee mecanismos autorregulatorios.
  • Autocuración: el cuerpo siempre busca su reparación, aunque la enfermedad altere ese esfuerzo.
  • Influencia interna por medio de acciones externas: las fuerzas externas modifican la forma y función internas.
  • Circulación: el movimiento de fluidos corporales es esencial para el mantenimiento de la salud.
  • Inervación: los nervios juegan un papel crucial en controlar los fluidos corporales.
  • Componente somático de la enfermedad: toda enfermedad se manifiesta de forma externa como síntoma somático.

Estos principios no son mantenidos por los osteópatas como leyes empíricas; son enseñados como guías básicas de la filosofía osteopática sobre la salud y enfermedad.[13]​

Tipos de osteopatía[editar]

Dependiendo de la parte del cuerpo en la que se encuentra, hay diferentes disciplinas cada una orientada a la atención de la estructura afectada:[14]​

  • Osteopatía estructural: Dedicada al restablecimiento del aparato músculo-esquelético y de la postura, centrándose en la columna vertebral y otras articulaciones y traumatismos.
  • Osteopatía craneal: Se centra en los problemas craneales y su influencia en el Sistema nervioso central.
  • Osteopatía visceral: Enfocada hacia la curación de órganos y vísceras, pretendiendo mejorar la función de estos mediante manipulación para conseguir un mejor riego sanguíneo.

Reconocimiento y Regulación[editar]

La práctica de la osteopatía está reconocida y regulada desde hace años en algunos países, como EE. UU., Reino Unido y Francia. En estos casos, el término osteopatía se limita a prácticas no invasivas incluidas en la medicina convencional.[15]​[16]​ En Europa, la Federación Europea de Osteópatas está formada por las Asociaciones Nacionales de osteópatas de todos los países de la Unión Europea y pretende la normalización académica y profesional de la Osteopatía en Europa.

EE. UU.[editar]

En EE. UU. la especialidad en osteopatía es una rama de los estudios de medicina. La titulación que se obtiene después de realizar los estudios en osteopatía es el «Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine» (DO).

España[editar]

En España, la osteopatía no está reconocida como una actividad profesional legal, sino alegal. Es una práctica terapéutica no incluida en el Código de la Sanidad Pública y el Código de la Seguridad Social. Actualmente los osteópatas se están organizando para que se reconozca su profesión.[17]​

La orden del Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación CIN/2135/2008, de 3 de julio, por la que se establecen los requisitos para la verificación de los títulos universitarios oficiales que habiliten para el ejercicio de la profesión de fisioterapeuta y establece la osteopatía como una asignatura del Graduado en Fisioterapia, por lo que se integran sus prácticas dentro de este título de grado,[18]​ no queriendo decir con ello que los fisioterapeutas sean los únicos habilitados para el ejercicio de la osteopatía, en cualquier país de la CE que este regulada la osteopatía, esta define claramente las diferencias con la fisioterapia o cualquier otra rama de similar acción.

Algunas universidades lo incluyen como asignaturas de distintos estudios de grado (fisioterapia, podología, etc.)[19]​[20]​ mientras que la Universidad de Murcia presenta un máster propio impartido por la Escuela Universitaria de Osteopatía y la Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia ofrece un Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Osteopatía y Terapia Manual.[21]​[22]​[23]​ Así mismo, universidades como Universidad Pompeu Fabra imparten dentro de sus programas de másters y postgrados especializaciones en osteopatía en colaboración con escuelas reconocidas por el Registro de Osteópatas de España y amparadas dentro del Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior, como la Escuela de Osteopatía de Barcelona. La Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona también posee programas similares en colaboración con escuelas no reconocidas por el Registro de Osteópatas de España.[cita requerida]

Registro de los Osteópatas de España

En 1993 fue creado el Registro de los Osteópatas de España (ROE), constituido como asociación y representante español en la Federación Europea de Osteópatas. Pretende aglutinar a todos aquellos profesionales y escuelas de osteopatía en España que, por su nivel académico, cumplan con los criterios especificados tanto por la OMS como por la EFO. Su objetivo es normalizar la osteopatía como profesión como entidad propia y no una especialización en fisioterapia, e incluir a más profesionales cualificados que procedan de otros grados en ciencias de la salud, siempre y cuando, hayan realizado cursos de adecuación en escuelas de osteopatía homologadas por el ROE. El Registro de los Osteópatas de España otorga el título de Osteópata DO MRO(E) (Diplomado en Osteopatía, Miembro del Registro). En 2013, el Registro reunía 261 miembros.

Francia[editar]

La legislación francesa especifica que un osteópata titulado únicamente está autorizado a utilizar prácticas musculoesqueléticas y miofaciales externas, con el único propósito de prevenir o corregir trastornos funcionales del cuerpo humano, con exclusión de enfermedades orgánicas que requieren la intervención terapéutica, médica, quirúrgica, de drogas o agentes físicos. En ningún caso un ostópata puede actuar cuando hay síntomas que justifican pruebas diagnósticas.[16]​ Se enseña en centros universitarios.

Críticas[editar]

Según los estudios científicos realizados hasta la fecha, los efectos beneficiosos de la osteopatía son indistinguibles de los de otras formas de terapia, como el masaje terapéutico,[24]​[25]​[10]​[26]​ pudiendo incluso llegar a tener consecuencias negativas cuando las técnicas son ejercidas por personal no cualificado.[27]​ No hay pruebas suficientes para determinar de forma fiable si el tratamiento manipulador osteopático es eficaz para el manejo del dolor provocado por la lumbalgia inespecífica.[28]​



ENGLISH VERSION[editar]

Osteopathy is a type of alternative medicine that emphasizes physical manipulation of muscle tissue and bones.[1]​[2]​ Practitioners of osteopathy are referred to as osteopaths.[29]​[30]​[31]​ Its name derives from Ancient Greek "bone" (ὀστέον) and "sensitive to" or "responding to" (-πάθεια).[32]​[33]​[34]​

The UK's National Health Service says there is "limited evidence" that osteopathy "may be effective for some types of neck, shoulder or lower limb pain and recovery after hip or knee operations", but that there is no evidence that osteopathy is effective as a treatment for health conditions unrelated to the bones and muscles.[10]​ Others have concluded that there is insufficient evidence to suggest efficacy for osteopathic style manipulation in treating musculoskeletal pain.[35]​

Osteopathic manipulation is the core set of techniques in osteopathy and osteopathic medicine.[36]​ Parts of osteopathy, such as cranial therapy, have no therapeutic value and have been labeled as pseudoscience.[37]​[38]​ The techniques are based on an ideology created by Andrew Taylor Still (1828–1917) which posits the existence of a "myofascial continuity" – a tissue layer that "links every part of the body with every other part". Osteopaths attempt to diagnose and treat what was originally called "the osteopathic lesion", but which is now named "somatic dysfunction",[36]​ by manipulating a person's bones and muscles. OMT techniques are most commonly used to treat back pain and other musculoskeletal issues.[36]​[39]​

In the United States, the training of osteopathic physicians (who practice osteopathic medicine) has become substantially similar to that of regular physicians.[40]​ While osteopathic manipulation is still included in the curricula of osteopathic physicians, and is promoted as a unique aspect of DO training, this has been described as nothing more than extra' training in pseudoscientific practices".[41]​ Osteopathic medical schools also tend to be weaker than MD schools with regard to research and the understanding of scientific inquiry.[42]​[43]​[44]​ In other countries, training may focus primarily on osteopathy and does not include a standard medical education,[45]​ with graduates being referred to as "[non-physician] osteopaths". The government policy and legal framework in which practitioners operate vary greatly from country to country.

History[editar]

Véase también: Osteopathic medicine in the United States: History
Monochrome photograph of Andrew Taylor Still in 1914
Andrew Taylor Still in 1914

Osteopathic medicine was founded by Andrew Taylor Still, a 19th-century American physician, Civil War surgeon, and Kansas state and territorial legislator.[46]​[47]​[48]​[49]​ He lived near Baldwin City, Kansas at the time of the American Civil War and it was there that he founded the practice of osteopathy.[50]​ Still claimed that human illness was rooted in problems with the musculoskeletal system, and that osteopathic manipulations could solve these problems by harnessing the body's own self-repairing potential.[51]​ Still's patients were forbidden from treatment by conventional medicine, as well as from other practices such as drinking alcohol.[36]​ These practices derive from the belief, common in the early 19th century among proponents of alternative medicine (then called "irregular medicine" or "unorthodox medicine"), that the body's natural state tends toward health and inherently contains the capacity to battle any illness.[9]​ This was opposed to orthodox practitioners, who held that intervention by the physician was necessary to restore health in the patient. At the time Still established the basis for osteopathy, the division between irregular medicine and regular medicine had already been a major conflict for decades.[52]​

The foundations of this divergence may be traced back to the mid-18th century, when advances in physiology began to localize the causes and nature of diseases to specific organs and tissues. Doctors began shifting their focus from the patient to the internal state of the body, resulting in an issue labeled as the problem of the "vanishing patient".[53]​ A stronger movement towards experimental and scientific medicine was then developed. In the perspective of the unorthodox physicians, the sympathy and holism that were integral to medicine in the past were left behind. Heroic medicine became the convention for treating patients, with aggressive practices like bloodletting and prescribing chemicals such as mercury, becoming the forefront in therapeutics.[54]​ Alternative medicine had its beginnings in the early 19th century, when gentler practices in comparison to heroic medicine began to emerge. Homeopaths, Thomsonians, and hydropaths practiced unconventional forms of healing that may have had strong appeal to patients due to their more attenuated practices.[53]​ As alternative medicine grew to include more followers, orthodox medicine continued to rebuke and seek to invalidate the "irregulars," as termed by the orthodox practitioners in heroic medicine. As each side sought to defend its practice, a schism began to present itself in the medical marketplace, with both the irregular and regular practitioners attempting to discredit the other. The irregulars — those who are now referred to as Alternative Medicine practitioners — argued that the regulars practiced an overly mechanistic approach to treating patients, treated the symptoms of disease instead of the original causes, and were blind to the harm they were causing their patients. Regular practitioners had a similar argument, labeling unorthodox medicine as unfounded, passive, and dangerous to a disease-afflicted patient.[55]​ This is the medical environment that pervaded throughout the 19th century, and this is the setting that Still entered when he began developing his idea of osteopathy.

After experiencing the loss of his wife and three daughters to spinal meningitis and noting that the current orthodox medical system could not save them, Still may have been prompted to shape his reformist attitudes towards conventional medicine.[56]​ Still set out to reform the orthodox medical scene and establish a practice that did not so readily resort to drugs, purgatives, and harshly invasive therapeutics to treat a person suffering from ailment,[9]​ similar to the mindset of the irregulars in the early 19th century. Thought to have been influenced by spiritualist figures such as Andrew Jackson Davis and ideas of magnetic and electrical healing, Still began practicing manipulative procedures that were intended to restore harmony in the body.[57]​ Over the course of the next twenty five years, Still attracted support for his medical philosophy that disapproved of orthodox medicine, and shaped his philosophy for osteopathy. Components of this philosophy included the idea that structure and function are interrelated and the importance of each piece of the body in the harmonious function of its whole.

Still sought to establish a new medical school that could produce physicians trained under this philosophy, and be prepared to compete against the orthodox, or allopathic, physicians. He established the American School of Osteopathy on 20 May 1892, in Kirksville, Missouri, with twenty-one students in the first class.[58]​ Still described the foundations of osteopathy in his book "The Philosophy and Mechanical Principles of Osteopathy" in 1892.[59]​ He named his new school of medicine "osteopathy", reasoning that "the bone, osteon, was the starting point from which [he] was to ascertain the cause of pathological conditions".[60]​ He would eventually claim that he could "shake a child and stop scarlet fever, croup, diphtheria, and cure whooping cough in three days by a wring of its neck."[61]​

When the state of Missouri granted the right to award the MD degree,[62]​ he remained dissatisfied with the limitations of conventional medicine and instead chose to retain the distinction of the DO degree.[63]​ In the early 20th century, osteopaths across the United States sought to establish law that would legitimize their medical degree to the standard of the allopathic medic.[64]​ The processes were arduous, and not without conflict. In some states, it took years for the bills to be passed. Osteopaths were often ridiculed and in some cases arrested,[64]​ but in each state, osteopaths managed to achieve the legal acknowledgement and action they set out to pursue. In 1898 the American Institute of Osteopathy started the Journal of Osteopathy and by that time four states recognized osteopathy as a profession.[65]​

Practice[editar]

Osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT) involves palpation and manipulation of bones, muscles, joints, and fasciae.

According to the American Osteopathic Association (AOA), osteopathic manipulative treatment is considered to be only one component of osteopathic medicine and may be used alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy, rehabilitation, surgery, patient education, diet, and exercise. OMT techniques are not necessarily unique to osteopathic medicine; other disciplines, such as physical therapy or chiropractic, use similar techniques.[66]​

One integral tenet of osteopathy is that problems in the body's anatomy can affect its proper functioning. Another tenet is the body's innate ability to heal itself. Many of osteopathic medicine’s manipulative techniques are aimed at reducing or eliminating the impediments to proper structure and function so the self-healing mechanism can assume its role in restoring a person to health.[67]​ Osteopathic medicine defines a concept of health care that embraces the concept of the unity of the living organism's structure (anatomy) and function (physiology). The American Osteopathic Association (AOA) state that the four major principles of osteopathic medicine are the following:[68]​

  1. The body is an integrated unit of mind, body, and spirit.
  2. The body possesses self-regulatory mechanisms, having the inherent capacity to defend, repair, and remodel itself.
  3. Structure and function are reciprocally interrelated.
  4. Rational therapy is based on consideration of the first three principles.

These principles are not held by Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine to be empirical laws; they serve, rather, as the underpinnings of the osteopathic approach to health and disease.[cita requerida]

Muscle energy[editar]

Artículo principal: Muscle energy technique

Muscle energy techniques address somatic dysfunction through stretching and muscle contraction. For example, if a person is unable to fully abduct her arm, the treating physician raises the patient's arm near the end of the patient's range of motion, also called the edge of the restrictive barrier. The patient then tries to lower her arm, while the physician provides resistance. This resistance against the patient's motion allows for isotonic contraction of the patient's muscle. Once the patient relaxes, her range of motion increases slightly. The repetition of alternating cycles of contraction and subsequent relaxation help the treated muscle improve its range of motion.[69]​ Muscle energy techniques are contraindicated in patients with fractures, crush injuries, dislocations, joint instability, severe muscle spasms or strains, severe osteoporosis, severe whiplash injury, vertebrobasilar insufficiency, severe illness, and recent surgery.

Counterstrain[editar]

Artículo principal: Counterstrain

Counterstrain is a system of diagnosis and treatment that considers the physical dysfunction to be a continuing, inappropriate strain reflex, which is inhibited during treatment by applying a position of mild strain in the direction exactly opposite to that of the reflex.[70]​ After a counterstrain point tender to palpation has been diagnosed,[71]​ the identified tender point is treated by the osteopathic physician who, while monitoring the tender point, positions the patient such that the point is no longer tender to palpation.[72]​ This position is held for ninety seconds and the patient is subsequently returned to her normal posture.[71]​ Most often this position of ease is usually achieved by shortening the muscle of interest.[72]​ Improvement or resolution of the tenderness at the identified counterstrain point is the desired outcome.[71]​ The use of counterstrain technique is contraindicated in patients with severe osteoporosis, pathology of the vertebral arteries, and in patients who are very ill or cannot voluntarily relax during the procedure.

High-velocity, low-amplitude[editar]

High velocity, low amplitude (HVLA) is a technique which employs a rapid, targeted, therapeutic force of brief duration that travels a short distance within the anatomic range of motion of a joint and engages the restrictive barrier in one or more places of motion to elicit release of restriction.[73]​ The use of HVLA is contraindicated in patients with Down syndrome due to instability of the atlantoaxial joint which may stem from ligamentous laxity, and in pathologic bone conditions such as fracture, history of a pathologic fracture, osteomyelitis, osteoporosis, and severe cases of rheumatoid arthritis.[74]​[75]​ HVLA is also contraindicated in patients with vascular disease such as aneurysms, or disease of the carotid arteries or vertebral arteries.[74]​ People taking ciprofloxacin or anticoagulants, or who have local metastases should not receive HVLA.[74]​

Myofascial release[editar]

Artículo principal: Myofascial release

Fascia is the soft tissue component of the connective tissue that provides support and protection for most structures within the human body, including muscle. This soft tissue can become restricted due to psychogenic disease, overuse, trauma, infectious agents, or inactivity, often resulting in pain, muscle tension, and corresponding diminished blood flow.[76]​ Myofascial release is a form of alternative treatment. The practitioners claim to treat skeletal muscle immobility and pain by relaxing contracted muscles. Palpatory feedback by the practitioner is said to be an integral part to achieving a release of myofascial tissues,[73]​ accomplished by relaxing contracted muscles, increasing circulation and lymphatic drainage, and stimulating the stretch reflex of muscles and overlying fascia.[77]​

Practitioners who perform myofascial release consider the fascia and its corresponding muscle to be the main targets of their procedure, but assert that other tissue may be affected as well, including other connective tissue.[77]​

Some osteopaths search for small lumps of tissue, called "Chapman release points" as part of their diagnostic procedure.[78]​

Lymphatic pump treatment[editar]

Artículo principal: Lymphatic pump

Lymphatic pump treatment (LPT) is a manual technique intended to encourage lymph flow in a person's lymphatic system.[79]​ The first modern lymphatic pump technique was developed in 1920, although osteopathic physicians used various forms of lymphatic techniques as early as the late 19th century.[80]​

Relative contraindications for the use of lymphatic pump treatments include fractures, abscesses or localized infections, and severe bacterial infections with body temperature elevated higher than 102 grados Fahrenheit (38,9 °C).[81]​

Effectiveness[editar]

In 2014, a systematic review and meta-analysis of 15 randomized controlled trials found moderate-quality evidence that OMT reduces pain and improves functional status in acute and chronic nonspecific low back pain.[82]​ The same analysis also found moderate-quality evidence for pain reduction for nonspecific low back pain in postpartum women and low-quality evidence for pain reduction in nonspecific low back pain in pregnant women.[82]​ A 2013 systematic review found insufficient evidence to rate osteopathic manipulation for chronic nonspecific low back pain.[83]​ In 2011, a systematic review found no compelling evidence that osteopathic manipulation was effective for the treatment of musculoskeletal pain.[24]​

In 2013, a Cochrane Review reviewed six randomized controlled trials which investigated the effect of four types of chest physiotherapy (including OMT) as adjunctive treatments for pneumonia in adults and concluded that "based on current limited evidence, chest physiotherapy might not be recommended as routine additional treatment for pneumonia in adults." Techniques investigated in the study included paraspinal inhibition, rib raising, and myofascial release. The review found that OMT did not reduce mortality and did not increase cure rate, but that OMT slightly reduced the duration of hospital stay and antibiotic use.[25]​ A 2013 systematic review of the use of OMT for treating pediatric conditions concluded that its effectiveness was unproven.[84]​

A 2005 Cochrane Review of OMT in asthma treatment concluded that there was insufficient evidence that OMT can be used to treat asthma.[85]​

A 2018 systematic review found that there is no evidence for the reliability or specific efficacy of the techniques used in visceral osteopathy.[86]​

Criticism[editar]

The AMA listed D.O.s as "cultists" and deemed M.D. consultation of D.O.s unethical from 1923 until 1962.[87]​ M.D.s regarded that osteopathic treatments were rooted in "pseudoscientific dogma", and although physicians from both branches of medicine have been able to meet on common ground, tensions between the two continue.[51]​

In 1988, Petr Skrabanek classified osteopathy as one of the "paranormal" forms of alternative medicine, commenting that it has a view of disease which had no meaning outside its own closed system.[88]​

In a 1995 conference address, the president of the Association of American Medical Colleges, Jordan J. Cohen, pinpointed OMT as a defining difference between M.D.s and D.O.s; while he saw there was no quarrel in the appropriateness of manipulation for musculoskeletal treatment, the difficulty centered on "applying manipulative therapy to treat other systemic diseases" – at that point, Cohen maintained, "we enter the realm of skepticism on the part of the allopathic world."[51]​

In 1998 Stephen Barrett of Quackwatch said that the worth of manipulative therapy had been exaggerated and that the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) was acting unethically by failing to condemn craniosacral therapy. The article attracted a letter from the law firm representing the AOA accusing Barrett of libel and demanding an apology to avert legal action.[51]​ In response Barrett made some slight modifications to his text, while maintaining its overall stance; he queried the AOA's reference to "the body's natural tendency toward good health" and challenged them to "provide [him] with adequate scientific evidence showing how this belief has been tested and demonstrated to be true."[51]​ Barrett has been quoted as saying "the pseudoscience within osteopathy can't compete with the science".[51]​

In 1999, Joel D. Howell noted that osteopathy and medicine as practiced by M.D.s were becoming increasingly convergent. He suggested that this raised a paradox: "if osteopathy has become the functional equivalent of allopathy, what is the justification for its continued existence? And if there is value in therapy that is uniquely osteopathic – that is, based on osteopathic manipulation or other techniques – why should its use be limited to osteopaths?"[36]​

In 2004, the osteopathic physician Bryan E. Bledsoe, a professor of emergency medicine, wrote disparagingly of the "pseudoscience" at the foundation of OMT. In his view, "OMT will and should follow homeopathy, magnetic healing, chiropractic, and other outdated practices into the pages of medical history."[89]​

In 2010, Steven Salzberg wrote that OMT was promoted as a special distinguishing element of DO training, but that it amounted to no more than "'extra' training in pseudoscientific practices."[41]​ It has been suggested that osteopathic physicians may be more likely than regular MDs to be involved in questionable practices such as orthomolecular therapy and homeopathy.[90]​[91]​

Regulation and legal status[editar]

The osteopathic profession has evolved into two branches, non-physician manual medicine osteopaths and full scope of medical practice osteopathic physicians. These groups are so distinct that in practice they function as separate professions. The regulation of non-physician manual medicine osteopaths varies greatly between jurisdictions. In Australia, the UK, and New Zealand the non-physician manual medicine osteopaths are regulated by statute and practice requires registration with the relevant regulatory authority. The Osteopathic International Alliance has a country guide with details of registration and practice rights and the International Osteopathic Association has a list of all accredited osteopathic colleges.[92]​

Several international and national organizations exist relating to osteopathic education and political advocacy. Similarly, there is also an international organization of organizations for national osteopathic and osteopathic medical associations, statutory regulators, and universities/medical schools offering osteopathic and osteopathic medical education, known as the Osteopathic International Alliance (OIA).[93]​

The following sections describe the legal status of osteopathy and osteopathic medicine in each country listed.

Australia[editar]

Osteopaths work in private practice, and the majority of private health insurance providers cover treatment performed by osteopaths.[94]​ In addition, treatment performed by osteopaths is covered by the public healthcare system in Australia (Medicare)[95]​ under the Chronic Disease Management plan.

Osteopaths in Australia undertake a minimum of five years' university training in anatomy, physiology, pathology, general medical diagnosis and osteopathic techniques to be eligible to practice.[96]​

Osteopathy Australia[97]​ (formerly the Australian Osteopathic Association) is a national organization representing the interests of Australian osteopaths, osteopathy as a profession in Australia, and consumers' right to access osteopathic services. Founded in 1955 in Victoria, the Australian Osteopathic Association became a national body in 1991 and became Osteopathy Australia in 2014.[98]​ and is a member of the Osteopathic International Alliance.[99]​

The Osteopathy Board of Australia[100]​ is part of the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency which is the regulatory body for all recognized health care professions in Australia.[96]​ The Osteopathic Board of Australia is separate from the Medical Board of Australia which is the governing body that regulates medical practitioners. Osteopaths trained internationally may be eligible for registration in Australia, dependent on their level of training and following relevant competency assessment.[96]​

Canada[editar]

In Canada, the titles "osteopath" and "osteopathic physician" are protected in some provinces by the medical regulatory college for physicians and surgeons.[101]​[102]​[103]​ As of 2011, there were approximately 20 U.S.-trained osteopathic physicians, all of which held a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree, practicing in all of Canada.[104]​ As of 2014, no training programs have been established for osteopathic physicians in Canada.[105]​

The non-physician manual practice of osteopathy is practiced in most Canadian provinces.[106]​ As of 2014, manual osteopathic practice is not a government-regulated health profession in any province,[107]​ and those interested in pursuing osteopathic studies must register in private osteopathy schools.[108]​ It is estimated that there are over 1,300 osteopathic manual practitioners in Canada, most of whom practice in Quebec and Ontario.[105]​ Some sources indicate that there are between 1,000 and 1,200 osteopaths practicing in the province of Quebec, and although this number might seem quite elevated, many osteopathy clinics are adding patients on waiting lists due to a shortage of osteopaths in the province.[108]​

Quebec[editar]

Beginning in 2009, Université Laval in Quebec City was working with the Collège d'études ostéopathiques in Montreal on a project to implement a professional osteopathy program consisting of a bachelor's degree followed by a professional master's degree in osteopathy as manual therapy.[108]​ However, due to the many doubts concerning the scientific credibility of osteopathy from the university's faculty of medicine, the program developers decided to abandon the project in 2011, after 2 1 2 years of discussion, planning, and preparation for the program implementation.[108]​ There was some controversy with the final decision of the university's committee regarding the continuous undergraduate and professional graduate program in osteopathy because the Commission of studies, which is in charge of evaluating new training programs offered by the university, had judged that the program had its place at Université Laval before receiving the unfavourable support decision from the faculty of medicine.[108]​ Had the program been implemented, Université Laval would have been the first university institution in Quebec to offer a professional program in osteopathy as a manual therapy.[108]​

European Union[editar]

There is no universal regulatory authority for the practice of osteopathy or osteopathic medicine within the European Union; it is on a country-by-country basis. The UK's General Osteopathic Council, a regulatory body set up under the country's Osteopaths Act 1993, has issued a position paper on European regulation of osteopathy.[109]​

France[editar]

Osteopathy is a governmentally recognized profession and has title protection, autorisation d'utiliser le titre d'ostéopathe.[110]​ The most recent decree regarding osteopathy was enacted in 2014.[111]​[112]​[113]​[114]​[115]​[116]​

Belgium[editar]

Since the early 1970's, osteopaths have been practicing in Belgium, during which time several attempts have been made to obtain an official status of health care profession. [cita requerida] In 1999, a law was passed (the 'Colla-Law'[117]​) providing a legal framework for osteopathy, amongst three other non-conventional medical professions, to develop into an independent medical profession in its own right. In 2011, the Belgian Minister Onkelinx created and established the Chambers for Non-Conventional Medicines and the Joint Commission provided for in the "Colla-law" (1999). The Chamber for Osteopathy has been active since then. Their goal is to discuss and reach an agreement between the various medical bodies to rule on these practices. In February 2014, only one practice, homeopathy, received its recognition. The others, including osteopathy, remain unresolved.[118]​ Since 2014, the majority of the professional osteopathic associations have joined together under the name UPOB - BVBO (Union Professionelle des Osteopathes de Belgique - Belgische Vereniging van Belgische Osteopaten - Professional Union of Belgian Osteopaths) in order to consolidate the image and united vision of osteopathy (± 900 osteopaths). This merger also resulted in the creation of a website[119]​ which represents all aspects of osteopathy in Belgium. Its aim is to offer Belgians a base of information about osteopathy, to provide access to a national emergency care service as well as to osteopathic care facilities for the less fortunate. It also serves as a directory for osteopaths who practice osteopathy exclusively. Lastly, the website serves as a platform to support actions working towards the recognition of osteopathy.

Germany[editar]

Germany has both osteopathy and osteopathic medicine. There is a difference in the osteopathic education between non-physician osteopaths, physiotherapists, and medical physicians.

Physiotherapists are a recognized health profession and can achieve a degree of "Diploma in Osteopathic Therapy (D.O.T.)". Non-physician osteopaths are not medically licensed. They have an average total of 1200 hours of training, roughly half being in manual therapy and osteopathy, with no medical specialization before they attain their degree. Non-physician osteopaths in Germany officially work under the "Heilpraktiker" law. Heilpraktiker is a separate profession within the health care system. There are many schools of osteopathy in Germany; most are moving toward national recognition although such recognition does not currently exist.[120]​ In Germany, there are rules (at the country level) under which persons (non-physicians) may call themselves osteopaths.[121]​

New Zealand[editar]

The practice of osteopathy is regulated by law, under the terms of the Health Practitioners Competence Assurance Act 2003[122]​ which came into effect on 18 September 2004. Under the Act, it is a legal requirement to be registered with the Osteopathic Council of New Zealand (OCNZ),[123]​ and to hold an annual practicing certificate issued by them, in order to practice as an osteopath. Each of the fifteen health professions regulated by the HPCA Act work within the "Scope of Practice" determined and published by its professional Board or Council. Osteopaths in New Zealand are not fully licensed physicians. In New Zealand, in addition to the general scope of practice, osteopaths may also hold the Scope of Practice for Osteopaths using Western Medical Acupuncture and Related Needling Techniques.[124]​

In New Zealand a course is offered at Unitec.[125]​ Australasian courses consist of a bachelor's degree in clinical science (osteopathy) followed by a master's degree. The Unitec double degree programme is the OCNZ prescribed qualification for registration in the scope of practice: Osteopath, Australian qualifications accredited by the Australian and New Zealand Osteopathic Council are also prescribed qualifications.

Osteopaths registered and in good standing with the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency – Osteopathy Board of Australian are eligible to register in New Zealand under the mutual recognition system operating between the two countries. Graduates from programs in every other country are required to complete an assessment procedure.[126]​

The scope of practice for US-trained osteopathic physicians is unlimited on an exceptions basis. Full licensure to practice medicine is awarded on an exceptions basis following a hearing before the licensing authorities in New Zealand. Both the Medical Council of New Zealand[127]​ and the Osteopathic Council of New Zealand [OCNZ][128]​ regulate osteopathic physicians in New Zealand. Currently, the country has no recognized osteopathic medical schools.[129]​

Portugal[editar]

Osteopathy is a governmentally recognized health profession and the title of Osteopath is protected by Law (Act 45/2003, of 22 October, and Act 71/2013, of 2 September). Currently there are three faculties that teach the four-year degree course of osteopathy (BSc Hon in Osteopathy).[130]​

United Kingdom[editar]

The practice of osteopathy has a long history in the United Kingdom. The first school of osteopathy was established in London in 1917 by John Martin Littlejohn, a pupil of A.T. Still, who had been Dean of the Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine. After many years of existing outside the mainstream of health care provision, the osteopathic profession in the UK was accorded formal recognition by Parliament in 1993 by the Osteopaths Act.[131]​ This legislation now provides the profession of osteopathy the same legal framework of statutory self-regulation as other healthcare professions such as medicine and dentistry.

The General Osteopathic Council (GOsC) regulates the practice of osteopathy under the terms of the Osteopaths Act 1993. Under British law, an osteopath must be registered with the GOsC to practice in the United Kingdom.[132]​ The General Osteopathic Council has a statutory duty to promote, develop and regulate the profession of osteopathy in the UK. It fulfills its duty to protect the interests of the public by ensuring that all osteopaths maintain high standards of safety, competence and professional conduct throughout their professional lives. In order to be registered with the General Osteopathic Council an osteopath must hold a recognized qualification that meets the standards as set out by law in the GOsC's Standard of Practice.[133]​ This Act provides for "protection of title" A person who, whether expressly or implicitly describes him- or herself as an osteopath, osteopathic practitioner, osteopathic physician, osteopathist, osteotherapist, or any kind of osteopath is guilty of an offence unless they are registered as an osteopath. There are currently more than five thousand osteopaths registered in the UK.[134]​

Osteopathic medicine is regulated by the General Osteopathic Council, (GOsC) under the terms of the Osteopaths Act 1993 and statement from the GMC. Practising osteopaths will usually have a B.S. or M.Sc. in osteopathy. Accelerated courses leading to accreditation are available for those with a medical degree and physiotherapists.[135]​ The London College of Osteopathic Medicine,[136]​ teaches osteopathy only to those who are already physicians.

United States[editar]

Artículo principal: Osteopathic medicine in the United States

Those trained only in manual osteopathic treatment, generally to relieve muscular and skeletal conditions, are referred to as osteopaths.[137]​ These non-physician practitioners are not permitted to use the title D.O. in the United States.[cita requerida] This is to avoid confusion with osteopathic physicians who are medical doctors trained and certified to practice in the branch of scientific medicine called osteopathic medicine.[1]​

The American Osteopathic Association and the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine recommend using the terms osteopathic physician (U.S.-trained only) and osteopathic medicine in reference to osteopathic medicine as practiced in the United States.[138]​ Osteopathic physicians earn the degree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.).[139]​[140]​[141]​[142]​

Osteopathic medicine in the United States has always meant a physician trained in and entitled to the full scope of medical practice. Osteopathy or osteopath as written in some U.S. state and federal laws refers only to osteopathic medicine or osteopathic physicians, respectively.[cita requerida] With the increased internationalization of the profession, these older terms have fallen out of favor as generally accepted use due to the confusion they may cause.[143]​[144]​

Egypt and the Middle East[editar]

Hesham Khalil introduced osteopathy in the Middle East at a local physical therapy conference in Cairo, Egypt in 2005 with a lecture titled "The global Osteopathic Concept / Holistic approach in Somatic Dysfunction". Since then he has toured the Middle East to introduce osteopathy in other Middle Eastern and North African countries, including Sudan, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, Kuwait and Oman. In December 2007 the first Workshop on Global osteopathic approach was held at the Nasser Institute Hospital for Research and Treatment, sponsored by the Faculty of Physical Therapy, University of Cairo, Egypt.[145]​ On 6 August 2010, the Egyptian Osteopathic Society (OsteoEgypt) was founded. OsteoEgypt promotes a two-tier model of osteopathy in Egypt and the Middle East. The event was timed to coincide with the birthday of A.T. Still.[146]​[147]​

India[editar]

Sri Sri University is the first university in India to offer M.Sc in Osteopathy programme by following the benchmarks defined by the World Health Organisation for training in Osteopathy.[148]​

See also[editar]

References[editar]

  1. ↑ a b c Snyder, John (2014). «Osteopathy in the NICU: False Claims and False Dichotomies». Consultado el 28 de marzo de 2017. «So other than a lower admissions standard and the focus on a pseudoscientific belief system, there is no difference between the two educational systems. So why should this two-tiered system even exist? It is time to rid ourselves of this pre-scientific, dual system of medical education.»  Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «SBM» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes
  2. ↑ a b «Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment». NYU Langone Medical Center. 23 de julio de 2012. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2012.  Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «NYULangoneOMT» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes
  3. ↑ The word 'osteopathy', Tucker EE, Osteopath 1904, May:194-196.
  4. ↑ Tucker, E. E. y P. T. Wilson. The Theory of Osteopathy, Kirksville, Missouri, 1936.
  5. ↑ Exposition of Still's thought: the word "osteopathy", Chila AG., J Am Acad Osteopath 2003, 13(2):2.
  6. ↑ Still AT. Osteopathy research and practice. Kirskville. Journal printing. 1910
  7. ↑ Still, A. T. Autobiography. Kirskville: Journal Printing; 1897
  8. ↑ Hoover MA. Some studies in osteopathy.AAo; 1951:55-72
  9. ↑ a b c d «Osteopathy for Muscloskeletal Pain». Clinical Rheumatology. 2011.  Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «:0» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes
  10. ↑ a b c d «Osteopathy – NHS Choices». Nhs.uk. 11 de octubre de 2011. Consultado el 8 de enero de 2014. «There's limited evidence to suggest that osteopathy may be effective for some types of neck, shoulder or lower-limb pain, and recovery after hip or knee operations. There's currently no good evidence that it's effective as a treatment for health conditions unrelated to the bones and muscles (musculoskeletal system).»  Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «NHS_osteopathy» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes
  11. ↑ nhs.uk, ed. (29 de mayo de 2018). «Evidence - Osteopathy» (en inglés). Consultado el 2 de octubre de 2019. «There's only limited or no scientific evidence to support osteopathy as an effective treatment for: asthma painful periods excessive crying in babies (colic) glue ear problems affecting the jaw (temporomandibular disorder) abnormal curvature of the spine (scoliosis) Placebo effect: When we use a treatment and feel better, this can sometimes happen because of a phenomenon called the placebo effect and not because of the treatment itself. This means that, although many people treated by osteopaths report good results, it's not always clear how effective the treatment actually is for certain conditions.» 
  12. ↑ «¿Qué es la medicina complementaria y alternativa?». The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM). Archivado desde el original el 8 de julio de 2007. 
  13. ↑ Andrea Basmajian. Osteopatía: terapia incomprendida, pág. 28. Editorial MAD Eduforma, Buenos Aires, 2004. ISBN 978-84-375-0578-7
  14. ↑ La Osteopatía, Dr. Andrea Gavazzi.
  15. ↑ General Osteopathic Council
  16. ↑ a b Décret n°2007-435 du 25 mars 2007 relatif aux actes et aux conditions d'exercice de l'ostéopathie (en francés). 
  17. ↑ Bañuls Puig Juan. 2001. Situación actual de la osteopatía en España, Tesina de fin de estudios de osteopatía (escuela CETOHM - Collège d'Enseignement Traditionnel de l'Ostéopathie Harold Magoun) presentada en 2001 en París, François Bel DO MRO(F), director de tesina.
  18. ↑ «ORDEN CIN/2135/2008, de 3 de julio, por la que se establecen los requisitos para la verificación de los títulos universitarios oficiales que habiliten para el ejercicio de la profesión de Fisioterapeuta». 
  19. ↑ Resolución de 7 de marzo de 2011, de la Universidad Camilo José Cela, por la que se publica el plan de estudios de Graduado en Fisioterapia
  20. ↑ Resolución de 12 de noviembre de 2010, de la Universidad Alfonso X el Sabio, por la que se publica el plan de estudios de Graduado en Podología
  21. ↑ Resolución de 12 de enero de 2011, de la Universidad de Murcia, por la que se publica el plan de estudios de Máster en Osteopatía
  22. ↑ Resolución de 22 de noviembre de 2010, de la Secretaría General de Universidades, por la que se publica el Acuerdo de Consejo de Ministros de 12 de noviembre de 2010, por el que se establece el carácter oficial de determinados títulos de Máster y su inscripción en el Registro de Universidades, Centros y Títulos.
  23. ↑ Resolución de 7 de septiembre de 2010, de la Secretaría General de Universidades, por la que se publica el Acuerdo de Consejo de Ministros de 30 de julio de 2010, por el que se establece el carácter oficial de determinados títulos universitarios de Doctor y su inscripción en el Registro de Universidades, Centros y Títulos.
  24. ↑ a b Posadzki P, Ernst E (febrero de 2011). «Osteopathy for musculoskeletal pain patients: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials». Clin. Rheumatol. (Systematic review) 30 (2): 285-91. PMID 21053038. doi:10.1007/s10067-010-1600-6.  Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «musculo-no» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes
  25. ↑ a b Yang, M.; Yuping, Y.; Yin, X.; Wang, B. Y.; Wu, T.; Liu, G. J.; Dong, BR (2013). «Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults». En Dong, Bi Rong, ed. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2 (2): CD006338. PMID 23450568. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006338.pub3.  Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «coch» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes
  26. ↑ «Low back pain: Early management of persistent non-specific low back pain». Archivado desde el original el 29 de abril de 2014. Consultado el 29 de abril de 2014. 
  27. ↑ «Nota informativa del Colegio de Fisioterapeutas de la Comunidad de Madrid». Consultado el 29 de marzo de 2015. 
  28. ↑ «Muscle energy technique (MET) for non-specific low-back pain». Consultado el 17 de julio de 2017. 
  29. ↑ «House of Delegates Resolution H-301 – RE: H229-A/05 Osteopath & Osteopathy – Use of the Terms». 
  30. ↑ Crosby, J (3 September 2010). «Promoting DOs: Words and medium change, but message stays the same». DO Magazine. Archivado desde el original el 12 de octubre de 2013.  Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  31. ↑ «Style Guide for Reporting on Osteopathic Medicine». American Osteopathic Association. Consultado el 17 December 2012. 
  32. ↑ The word 'osteopathy', Tucker EE, Osteopath 1904, May:194–196.
  33. ↑ The Theory of Osteopathy, E.E. Tucker and P.T. Wilson, Kirksville, Missouri, 1936.
  34. ↑ Exposition of Still's thought: the word "osteopathy", Chila AG., J Am Acad Osteopath 2003, 13(2):2.
  35. ↑ Posadzki, P; Ernst, E (2011). «Osteopathy for Musculoskeletal Pain». Clinical Rheumatology 30 (2): 285-91. PMID 21053038. doi:10.1007/s10067-010-1600-6. 
  36. ↑ a b c d e Howell, Joel D. (1999). «The Paradox of Osteopathy». New England Journal of Medicine 341 (19): 1465-8. PMID 10547412. doi:10.1056/NEJM199911043411910. 
  37. ↑ «Dubious Aspects of Osteopathy». www.quackwatch.org. Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2016. 
  38. ↑ «Why Cranial Therapy Is Silly». www.quackwatch.com. Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2016. 
  39. ↑ «Manipulative Therapies: Osteopathy and Chiropractic». Complementary Medicine: A Research Perspective (John Wiley & Sons). 1997. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-471-96645-6.  Parámetro desconocido |vauthors= ignorado (ayuda)
  40. ↑ Gorski, David (14 November 2011). «Defining what a 'physician' is». Consultado el 28 April 2019. 
  41. ↑ a b Salzberg, Steven (27 October 2010). «Osteopathic Physicians Versus Doctors». Forbes. Consultado el 18 September 2013. 
  42. ↑ Gevitz N (Mar 2001). «Researched and demonstrated: inquiry and infrastructure at osteopathic institutions» (Free full text). The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 101 (3): 174-179. PMID 11329813. 
  43. ↑ Kelso A, Townsend A. The status and future of osteopathic research. In: Northup G, ed. Osteopathic Research: Growth and Development. Chicago, Ill: American Osteopathic Association; 1987.
  44. ↑ Licciardone JC (2007). «Osteopathic research: elephants, enigmas, and evidence». Osteopathic Medicine and Primary Care 1: 7. PMC 1808471. PMID 17371583. doi:10.1186/1750-4732-1-7. 
  45. ↑ American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine. «The Difference Between U.S.-Trained Osteopathic Physicians and Osteopaths Trained Abroad». Consultado el 28 April 2019. 
  46. ↑ «Medical Registration for Macon County, MO as of March 27, 1874, Missouri Digital Heritage, Secretary of State of Missouri». Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  47. ↑ «Medical registration for Adair County, MO dated 28 July 1883». Missouri Digital Heritage, Secretary of State of Missouri. 
  48. ↑ «Six Survivors of First Free State Legislature in Kansas, Topeka Daily Capital, Missouri's Digital Heritage, Secretary of State of Missouri». Cdm.sos.mo.gov. Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  49. ↑ «Charles E. Still (son) – Letters to Edith Mellor, DO. Missouri's Digital Heritage, Secretary of State of Missouri». Cdm.sos.mo.gov. Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  50. ↑ «Baldwin City, Kansas». «Among Free State leaders was Andrew T. Still, founder of osteopathy, whose theory of healing developed here.» 
  51. ↑ a b c d e f Guglielmo, WJ (1998). «Are D.O.s losing their unique identity?». Medical economics 75 (8): 200-2, 207-10, 213-4. PMID 10179479. 
  52. ↑ Whorton, James C. (2002). Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-19-514071-2. 
  53. ↑ a b Whorton, James C. (2002). Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-514071-2. 
  54. ↑ Whorton, James C (2002). Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-514071-2. 
  55. ↑ Whorton, James C (2002). Natures Cures:The History of Alternative Medicine in America. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-19-514071-2. 
  56. ↑ Gevitz, Norman (1 de enero de 2014). «A Degree of Difference: The Origins of Osteopathy and First Use of the "DO" Designation». The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 114 (1): 30-40. ISSN 0098-6151. PMID 24384971. doi:10.7556/jaoa.2014.005. 
  57. ↑ Gevitz, Norman (1 de enero de 2014). «A Degree of Difference: The Origins of Osteopathy and First Use of the "DO" Designation». The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 114 (1): 30-40. ISSN 0098-6151. PMID 24384971. doi:10.7556/jaoa.2014.005. 
  58. ↑ Peter, Wagner (11 de abril de 2011). History of Osteopathy (en inglés estadounidense). 
  59. ↑ Andrew Taylor Still, Discoverer of the Science of Osteopathy; Founder and President of the American School of Osteopathy (1892). The philosophy and mechanical principles of osteopathy (full text). KANSAS CITY, Mo.: HUDSON-KIMBERLY PUB. CO.  This edition 1902; copyright 1892. Chapters: Preface; Introduction; I. Important Studies; II. Some Substances of the Body; III. Divisions of the Body; IV. Head, Face, and Scalp; Chapter V. The Neck; VI. The Thorax; VII. The Diaphragm; VIII. The Abdomen; IX. The Pelvis; X. Fevers; XI. Biogen; XII. Smallpox; XIII. Obesity; XIV. Ear-Wax and Its Uses; XV. Convulsions; XVI. Obstetrics.
  60. ↑ Webster, D.O., George V. (1919). «Concerning Osteopathy». Early American Manual Therapy. Archivado desde el original el 5 December 2010.  Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda)
  61. ↑ Carroll RT (27 November 2015). «Osteopathy». Consultado el 28 April 2019. 
  62. ↑ «Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation». State of New Jersey. Archivado desde el original el 8 September 2008.  Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  63. ↑ «Osteopathic Virtual Museum». Archivado desde el original el 16 March 2012. Consultado el 13 November 2011.  Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  64. ↑ a b Booth, Emmons Rutledge (1 de enero de 1905). History of Osteopathy: And Twentieth-century Medical Practice (en inglés). Press of Jennings and Graham. 
  65. ↑ «General Notices». Popular Science Monthly: 710. Mar 1898. Consultado el 14 de mayo de 2013. 
  66. ↑ «What Is Osteopathic Medicine?». Aacom.org. Consultado el 24 de mayo de 2012. 
  67. ↑ «What is Osteopathic Medicine». American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine (AACOM). Consultado el 17 December 2014. 
  68. ↑ «Statement of Healthcare Policies and Principles». American Osteopathic Association. Consultado el 1 July 2012. 
  69. ↑ DiGiovanna, Schiowitz y Dowling, 2005, pp. 83–5
  70. ↑ DiGiovanna, Schiowitz y Dowling, 2005, pp. 86–8
  71. ↑ a b c «Strain counterstrain technique to decrease tender point palpation pain compared to control conditions: A systematic review with meta-analysis». J Bodyw Mov Ther (Systematic review and meta-analysis) 18 (2): 165-73. April 2014. PMID 24725782. doi:10.1016/j.jbmt.2013.09.010.  Parámetro desconocido |vauthors= ignorado (ayuda)
  72. ↑ a b Wong CK (February 2012). «Strain counterstrain: Current concepts and clinical evidence». Manual Therapy 17 (1): 2-8. PMID 22030379. doi:10.1016/j.math.2011.10.001. 
  73. ↑ a b «Glossary of Osteopathic Terminology, November 2011 Edition». AACOM. pp. 30-31. Consultado el 1 July 2012. 
  74. ↑ a b c Roberge, Raymond J.; Roberge, Marc R. (2009). «Overcoming Barriers to the Use of Osteopathic Manipulation Techniques in the Emergency Department». Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 10 (3): 184-9. PMC 2729220. PMID 19718381. 
  75. ↑ Savarese, Copabianco y Cox, 2009, p. 146
  76. ↑ DiGiovanna, Schiowitz y Dowling, 2005, pp. 80–1
  77. ↑ a b DiGiovanna, Schiowitz y Dowling, 2005, p. 80
  78. ↑ Chila, Anthony G. (2010). Foundations of Osteopathic Medicine (en inglés). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 568. ISBN 9780781766715. 
  79. ↑ Pierce-Talsma, Stacey; Cuny, Lee Ann; Franzini, Danielle (1 de julio de 2018). «Osteopathic Lymphatic Pump Techniques». The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association (en inglés) 118 (7): e43-e44. ISSN 0098-6151. doi:10.7556/jaoa.2018.112. 
  80. ↑ Chikly, Bruno J. (2005). «Manual Techniques Addressing the Lymphatic System: Origins and Development». The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 105 (10): 457-64. PMID 16314678. 
  81. ↑ Savarese, Copabianco y Cox, 2009, p. 126
  82. ↑ a b «Osteopathic manipulative treatment for nonspecific low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis». BMC Musculoskelet Disord (Systematic review & meta-analysis) 15 (1): 286. August 2014. PMC 4159549. PMID 25175885. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-15-286.  Parámetro desconocido |vauthors= ignorado (ayuda)
  83. ↑ «Osteopathic intervention in chronic non-specific low back pain: a systematic review». BMC Musculoskelet Disord (Systematic review) 14: 129. 2013. PMC 3623881. PMID 23570655. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-14-129.  Parámetro desconocido |vauthors= ignorado (ayuda)
  84. ↑ Posadzki, P.; Lee, M. S.; Ernst, E. (2013). «Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment for Pediatric Conditions: A Systematic Review». Pediatrics 132 (1): 140-52. PMID 23776117. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-3959. 
  85. ↑ Hondras, Maria A; Linde, Klaus; Jones, Arthur P (2005). «Manual therapy for asthma». En Hondras, Maria A, ed. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD001002. PMID 15846609. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001002.pub2. 
  86. ↑ Guillaud, Albin; Darbois, Nelly; Monvoisin, Richard; Pinsaultn, Nicolas (2018). «Reliability of diagnosis and clinical efficacy of visceral osteopathy: a systematic review». BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 18 (2). PMC 5816506. doi:10.1186/s12906-018-2098-8. 
  87. ↑ Quinn, Thomas A. (2011). The Feminine Touch: Women in Osteopathic Medicine. Truman State University Press. pp. 81-85. ISBN 9781935503132. 
  88. ↑ Skrabanek P (April 1988). «Paranormal health claims». Experientia (Review) 44 (4): 303-9. PMID 2834214. doi:10.1007/bf01961267. 
  89. ↑ Bryan E. Bledsoe (2004). «The Elephant in the Room: Does OMT Have Proved Benefit?». J Am Osteopath Assoc (Letter) 104 (10): 407. 
  90. ↑ Jarvis WT (29 December 2000). «Osteopathy's Sectarian Roots». Consultado el 28 April 2019. 
  91. ↑ Barrett S (11 February 2018). «Dubious Aspects of Osteopathy». Consultado el 28 April 2019. 
  92. ↑ «Directories». Osteopathic International Alliance. Consultado el 27 July 2012. 
  93. ↑ «Osteopathic International Alliance». Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  94. ↑ «Osteopathy in Australia, Osteopathic International Alliance. Retrieved 26 February 2011.». Archivado desde el original el 24 March 2012.  Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  95. ↑ «Chronic Disease Management - Individual Allied Health Services under Medicare - Provider Information». Medicare Australia. 
  96. ↑ a b c «Australia Health Professions Regulatory Agency». Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  97. ↑ «Osteopathy Australia». Osteopathy Australia. Consultado el 10 July 2014. 
  98. ↑ «Allied Health Professions Australia (AHPA)». Allied Health Professions Australia (AHPA). Consultado el 10 July 2014. 
  99. ↑ «Osteopathic International Alliance». Osteopathic International Alliance. Consultado el 10 July 2014. 
  100. ↑ «Board of Australia Codes & Guidelines of the Profession». www.osteopathyboard.gov.au. Archivado desde el original el 19 February 2011.  Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  101. ↑ «Ontario Medicine Act – Restricted Titles, Section 9». Province of Ontario, Canada. Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  102. ↑ «British Columbia Medical Practitioners Act, Section 40 Registration of Osteopaths». 1 June 2009. Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  103. ↑ «Alberta Medical Profession Act, Sections 3 and 18». Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  104. ↑ «MSUCOM pilot program targets Canadian students for training». The DO. Consultado el 3 de mayo de 2014. 
  105. ↑ a b «Who Provides Osteopathy?». Ontario Association of Osteopathic Manual Practitioners. Consultado el 28 April 2014. 
  106. ↑ «Who is an Osteopath in Canada?». Canadian Federation of Osteopaths. Consultado el 3 de mayo de 2014. 
  107. ↑ «Regulation». Ontario Association of Osteopathic Manual Practitioners. Consultado el 28 April 2014. 
  108. ↑ a b c d e f Allard, Marc (3 October 2011). «L'Université Laval ferme la porte à l'ostéopathie». La Presse (en french). Le Soleil. Consultado el 12 de mayo de 2015. 
  109. ↑ European Public Health Alliance UK GOsC Position paper on pan-European regulation. Retrieved 2 August 2006
  110. ↑ «Article 75, Public Health Law(2002)» (en francés). Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  111. ↑ «Legifrance». 
  112. ↑ «Décret n° 2014-1505 du 12 décembre 2014 relatif à la formation en ostéopathie - Legifrance». www.legifrance.gouv.fr. 
  113. ↑ «Legifrance». 
  114. ↑ «Arrêté du 12 décembre 2014 relatif à la formation en ostéopathie - Legifrance». www.legifrance.gouv.fr. 
  115. ↑ «Arrêté du 12 décembre 2014 relatif aux dispenses d'enseignement susceptibles d'être accordées en vue de la préparation au diplôme permettant d'user du titre d'ostéopathe - Legifrance». www.legifrance.gouv.fr. 
  116. ↑ «Legifrance». 
  117. ↑ «Pratiques non conventionnelles». Service Public Fédéral - Santé publique. 27 de enero de 2016. 
  118. ↑ «Développement de l'Ostéopathie en Belgique | Osteopathie.be». osteopathie.be. Consultado el 11 de noviembre de 2017. 
  119. ↑ osteopathie.be
  120. ↑ «Osteopathy in Germany, Osteopathic International Alliance. Retrieved 26 February 2011.». Archivado desde el original el 2 June 2013.  Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  121. ↑ Verordnung einer Weiterbildungs- und Prüfungsordnung im Bereich der Osteopathie- Hessen, hier online
  122. ↑ «Health Practitioners Competence Assurance Act 2003 No 48 (as at 01 August 2011), Public Act – New Zealand Legislation». 2011. Consultado el 18 November 2011. 
  123. ↑ «Home». www.osteopathiccouncil.org.nz. 
  124. ↑ «The Department of Internal Affairs: New Zealand Gazette – The New Zealand Gazette». Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  125. ↑ «Master of Osteopathy courses, postgraduate study for a masters degree». Unitec. Consultado el 26 January 2009. «The Master of Osteopathy is the only New Zealand-based programme that enables you to register with the Osteopathic Council of New Zealand, and to enter practice as an osteopath in New Zealand.» 
  126. ↑ «Osteopathy in New Zealand, Osteopathic International Alliance. Retrieved 26 February 2011.». Archivado desde el original el 2 June 2013.  Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  127. ↑ Medical Council of New Zealand. «Medical Council of New Zealand». Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  128. ↑ «Osteopathic Council of New Zealand». 19 February 2009. Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  129. ↑ «Osteopathic Medicine in New Zealand, Osteopathic International Alliance. Retrieved 26 February 2011.». Archivado desde el original el 2 June 2013.  Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  130. ↑ «Iniciativa - Atividade Parlamentar e Processo Legislativo». www.parlamento.pt. 
  131. ↑ «Osteopaths Act 1993». 27 de mayo de 2011. Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  132. ↑ «About osteopathy». General Osteopathic Council. Consultado el 7 March 2013. 
  133. ↑ «Standards of Osteopathic Training & Practice, General Osteopathic Council». Archivado desde el original el 12 April 2009.  Parámetro desconocido |df= ignorado (ayuda); Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  134. ↑ «United Kingdom». Osteopathy. General Osteopathic Council. Consultado el 26 October 2015. 
  135. ↑ «Becoming an osteopath - General Osteopathic Council». www.osteopathy.org.uk. Consultado el 25 de septiembre de 2016. 
  136. ↑ «London College of Osteopathic Medicine». Consultado el 13 November 2011. 
  137. ↑ «Osteopath». dictionary.cambridge.org. Cambridge University Press. Consultado el 4 August 2017. 
  138. ↑ Staff writer (2015). «H315-A/15 Osteopath and Osteopathy - Use of the Term». American Osteopathic Association. 
  139. ↑ «Medicine». American Medical Association. Consultado el 20 March 2013. 
  140. ↑ Dennis L. Kasper, Eugene Braunwald, Anthony S. Fauci, Stephen L. Hauser, Dan L. Longo, J. Larry Jameson, and Kurt J. Isselbacher, Eds. Chapter 10. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th Ed. 2005. McGraw Hill.
  141. ↑ «Consumer Info FAQs». North Carolina Medical Board. Consultado el 20 March 2013. 
  142. ↑ MedlinePlus (2012). «Doctor of Osteopathic medicine». U.S. National Library of Medicine. Consultado el 25 October 2012. 
  143. ↑ Schierhorn, Carolyn (August 4, 2010). «AOA House reasserts preferred terms osteopathic physician, osteopathic medicine». The DO. Archivado desde el original el October 6, 2014.  Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  144. ↑ Croby, John B. Crosby (3 September 2010). «Promoting DOs: Words, medium change, but message stays the same». The DO. Archivado desde el original el 12 October 2013.  Parámetro desconocido |url-status= ignorado (ayuda)
  145. ↑ Rizk, Mohamed (2007). «Osteopathy». Physical Therapists Of Egypt Blog. Consultado el 30 July 2014. 
  146. ↑ Khalil, Hesham (2014). «The History of the Egyptian Osteopathic Society». OsteoEgypt. Consultado el 26 July 2014. 
  147. ↑ «هشام خليل: الاستيوباثي علاج يستهدف العرض وليس المرض». alahram newspaper. 2014. Consultado el 30 July 2014. 
  148. ↑ «M.Sc - Osteopathy - Sri Sri University». www.srisriuniversity.edu.in. 

Further reading[editar]

External links[editar]

Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Usuario:Ebergerz/taller-colab&oldid=147941700»