Diferencia entre revisiones de «Apoyo social»

De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre
Contenido eliminado Contenido añadido
m [BOT] Artículos en desarrollo pero sin ediciones en un período de tiempo prolongado
DamyLechu (discusión · contribs.)
Línea 1: Línea 1:
{{Traducción|ci=en|art=Social support}}{{En desarrollo|3=}}

El '''apoyo social''' es una serie de recursos psicológicos (proveniente de otras personas) que son significativas para un individuo y que lo hacen sentirse [[Autoestima|estimado y valorado]].<ref name=":0">{{Cita publicación|url=http://www.insht.es/InshtWeb/Contenidos/Documentacion/FichasTecnicas/NTP/Ficheros/401a500/ntp_439.pdf|título=El apoyo social|apellidos=Perez Bilbao|nombre=Jesús|fecha=1999|publicación=Ministerio de trabajo y asuntos sociales|fechaacceso=|doi=|pmid=}}</ref> Están compuestas por transacciones interpersonales que implican la expresión de afectos positivos y la provisión de ayuda o asistencia a una o más personas. Esto permite que las necesidades sociales básicas de un individuo sean satisfechas por medio de la [[Interacción social|interacción con otros]].<ref name=":0" />
El '''apoyo social''' es una serie de recursos psicológicos (proveniente de otras personas) que son significativas para un individuo y que lo hacen sentirse [[Autoestima|estimado y valorado]].<ref name=":0">{{Cita publicación|url=http://www.insht.es/InshtWeb/Contenidos/Documentacion/FichasTecnicas/NTP/Ficheros/401a500/ntp_439.pdf|título=El apoyo social|apellidos=Perez Bilbao|nombre=Jesús|fecha=1999|publicación=Ministerio de trabajo y asuntos sociales|fechaacceso=|doi=|pmid=}}</ref> Están compuestas por transacciones interpersonales que implican la expresión de afectos positivos y la provisión de ayuda o asistencia a una o más personas. Esto permite que las necesidades sociales básicas de un individuo sean satisfechas por medio de la [[Interacción social|interacción con otros]].<ref name=":0" />


Línea 31: Línea 33:
Sin embargo, existe otro modelo de apoyo social que lo contempla como una variable mediadora entre el estrés y la enfermedad.<ref>{{Cita publicación|url=|título=Social support, stress and the buffering hypothesis: a theoretical analysis|apellidos=Cohen & McKay|nombre=|fecha=1984|publicación=Handbook of psychology and health|fechaacceso=|doi=|pmid=}}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación|url=|título=Stress-buffering functions of social support: an appraisal and clarification of research models|apellidos=Gore|nombre=|fecha=|publicación=Stressful life events and their contexts|fechaacceso=|doi=|pmid=}}</ref> Esto es, cumplir una función amortiguadora en el individuo que le permite redefinir la situación estresante, afrontarlas mediante estrategias no estresantes e inhibir los procesos psicopatológicos que podrían desencadenarse si hubiera ausencia de apoyo social.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cita publicación|url=|título=Models for the stress-buffering functions of coping resources|apellidos=Wheaton|nombre=|fecha=|publicación=J. Health Soc. Behav.|fechaacceso=|doi=|pmid=}}</ref> Cuando el individuo tiene la certeza de que dispone de los recursos suficientes, tanto materiales como emocionales, puede evitar definir una situación exigente como estresante y por ende no repercutir negativamente en su salud.<ref name=":1" />
Sin embargo, existe otro modelo de apoyo social que lo contempla como una variable mediadora entre el estrés y la enfermedad.<ref>{{Cita publicación|url=|título=Social support, stress and the buffering hypothesis: a theoretical analysis|apellidos=Cohen & McKay|nombre=|fecha=1984|publicación=Handbook of psychology and health|fechaacceso=|doi=|pmid=}}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación|url=|título=Stress-buffering functions of social support: an appraisal and clarification of research models|apellidos=Gore|nombre=|fecha=|publicación=Stressful life events and their contexts|fechaacceso=|doi=|pmid=}}</ref> Esto es, cumplir una función amortiguadora en el individuo que le permite redefinir la situación estresante, afrontarlas mediante estrategias no estresantes e inhibir los procesos psicopatológicos que podrían desencadenarse si hubiera ausencia de apoyo social.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cita publicación|url=|título=Models for the stress-buffering functions of coping resources|apellidos=Wheaton|nombre=|fecha=|publicación=J. Health Soc. Behav.|fechaacceso=|doi=|pmid=}}</ref> Cuando el individuo tiene la certeza de que dispone de los recursos suficientes, tanto materiales como emocionales, puede evitar definir una situación exigente como estresante y por ende no repercutir negativamente en su salud.<ref name=":1" />


== Relación con otras variables ==
== Gender and culture ==

=== Gender differences ===
Gender differences have been found in social support research.<ref name="Cultural" /> Women provide more social support to others and are more engaged in their social networks.<ref name="T95" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Belle|first=D.|title=Gender and stress|year=1987|publisher=The Free Press|location=New York|editor=Barnett, R.C.|editor2=Biener, L.|editor3=Baruch, G.K.|pages=257–277|chapter=Gender differences in the social moderators of stress}}</ref><ref name="Tend">{{cite journal|title=Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight|journal=Psychological Review|volume=107|issue=3|pages=411–429|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.107.3.411|pmid=10941275|author3=Lewis, B.P|author4=Gruenewald, T.L.|author5=Gurung, R.A.R.|author6=Updegraff, J.A.|year=2000|last=Taylor|first=S.E.|author2=Klein, L.C.|citeseerx=10.1.1.386.912}}</ref> Evidence has also supported the notion that women may be better providers of social support.<ref name="T95" /> In addition to being more involved in the giving of support, women are also more likely to seek out social support to deal with stress, especially from their spouses. However, one study indicates that there are no differences in the extent to which men and women seek appraisal, informational, and instrumental types of support. Rather, the big difference lies in seeking emotional support.<ref name="Gender Differences In Perceptions Of Stressors And Utilization Of Social Support Among University Students">{{cite journal|title=Gender Differences In Perceptions Of Stressors And Utilization Of Social Support Among University Students|last1=Day|first1=A.|last2=Livingtone1|first2=H.|date=2003|journal=Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science|volume=35|issue=2|pages=73–83|doi=10.1037/h0087190|ref=109}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|volume=6|pages=2–30|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr0601_1|author3=Helgeson, V.S.|year=2002|last=Tamres|first=L.|author2=Janicki, D.}}</ref> Additionally, social support may be more beneficial to women.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Social support and health: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychology and Health|volume=3|pages=1–15|doi=10.1080/08870448908400361|year=1989|last=Schwarzer|first=R.|author2=Leppin, A.}}</ref> [[Shelley Taylor]] and her colleagues have suggested that these gender differences in social support may stem from the biological difference between men and women in how they respond to stress (i.e., [[Flight or fight response|flight or fight]] versus [[tend and befriend]]).<ref name="Tend" /> Married men are less likely to be depressed compared to non-married men after the presence of a particular stressor because men are able to delegate their emotional burdens to their partner, and women have been shown to be influenced and act more in reaction to social context compared to men.<ref name="Hobfoll">{{cite book|last1=Hobfoll|title=Social support and social coping in couples|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-1388-3_17|pages=413–433|issue=|volume=1|journal=Handbook of Social Support and the Family|url=|year=1996|first1=S.E.|first4=R.W.|last4=Gallagher|first3=H.A.|last3=Chapman|first2=R.P.|last2=Cameron|isbn=978-1-4899-1390-6}}</ref> It has been found that men's behaviors are overall more asocial, with less regard to the impact their coping may have upon others, and women more prosocial with importance stressed on how their coping affects people around them.<ref>Malek, M.J. (2000). Coping profiles within the strategic approach to coping ccale and their relationship to physical and psychological well-being. Kent State University, 1-151.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=|title=The applicability of the multiaxial model of coping to a greek population|last1=Roussi|first1=P.|last2=Vassilaki|first2=E.|journal=Anxiety, Stress, & Coping|volume=14|issue=2|pages=125–147|doi=10.1080/10615800108248351|year=2000}}</ref> This may explain why women are more likely to experience negative psychological problems such as depression and anxiety based on how women receive and process stressors.<ref name="Hobfoll" /> In general, women are likely to find situations more stressful than males are. It is important to note that when the perceived stress level is the same, men and women have much fewer differences in how they seek and use social support.<ref name="Gender Differences In Perceptions Of Stressors And Utilization Of Social Support Among University Students" />

=== Cultural differences ===
Although social support is thought to be a universal resource, cultural differences exist in social support.<ref name="Cultural" /> In many Asian cultures, the person is seen as more of a collective unit of society, whereas Western cultures are more individualistic and conceptualize social support as a transaction in which one person seeks help from another. In more interdependent Eastern cultures, people are less inclined to enlist the help of others.<ref name="Culture and Social Support: Who Seeks It and Why?" /> For example, [[European Americans]] have been found to call upon their social relationships for social support more often than [[Asian Americans]] or Asians during stressful occasions,<ref name="S04">{{cite journal|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1tr8z9gs|title=Culture and social support: Who seeks it and why?|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=87|issue=3|pages=354–62|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.354|pmid=15382985|author3=Kim, H.S.|author4=Jarcho, J.|author5=Takagi, K.|author6=Dunagan, M.S.|year=2004|last=Taylor|first=S.E.|author2=Sherman, D.K.}}</ref> and Asian Americans expect social support to be less helpful than European Americans.<ref name="S06">{{cite journal|title=Pursuit of Comfort and Pursuit of Harmony: Culture, Relationships, and Social Support Seeking|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=32|issue=12|pages=1596–1607|doi=10.1177/0146167206291991|pmid=17122173|author3=Ko, D.|author4=Taylor, S.E|year=2006|last=Kim|first=H.S.|author2=Sherman, D.K.|citeseerx=10.1.1.584.9979}}</ref> These differences in social support may be rooted in different cultural ideas about [[social groups]].<ref name="S04" /><ref name="S06" /> It is important to note that these differences are stronger in emotional support than instrumental support.<ref name="Culture and Social Support: Who Seeks It and Why?" /> Additionally, ethnic differences in social support from family and friends have been found.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ethnicity and social support during pregnancy|journal=American Journal of Community Psychology|volume=27|issue=6|pages=873–902|doi=10.1023/a:1022266726892|pmid=10723538|author3=Killingsworth-Rini, C.|author4=Woo, G.|author5=Dunkel-Schetter, C|year=1999|last=Sagrestano|first=L.M.|author2=Feldman, P.}}</ref>

Cultural differences in coping strategies other than social support also exist. One study shows that Koreans are more likely to report substance abuse than European Americans are. Further, European Americans are more likely to exercise in order to cope than Koreans. Some cultural explanations are that Asians are less likely to seek it from fear of disrupting the harmony of their relationships and that they are more inclined to settle their problems independently and avoid criticism. However, these differences are not found among Asian Americans relative to their Europeans American counterparts.<ref name="Culture and Social Support: Who Seeks It and Why?" />

Different cultures have different ways of socials support.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Social support across cultures|date=September 2006|journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations|volume=30|issue=5|pages=605–622|issn=0147-1767|doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.01.013|last=Glazer|first=Sharon}}</ref> In African American households support is limited. Many black mothers raise their children without a male figure.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Social Support, Locus of Control, and Parenting in Three Low-Income Groups of Mothers: Black Teenagers, Black Adults, and White Adults|date=June 1988|journal=Child Development|volume=59|issue=3|pages=635–642|issn=0009-3920|doi=10.2307/1130563|last=Stevens|first=Joseph H.|jstor=1130563}}</ref> Women struggle with job opportunities due to job biases and racial discrimination.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Land Reform and Tourism Development: Policy-Making In the Phillippines. Linda K. Richter. Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc., 3 Mount Auburn Place, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. 1982. 240p|date=July 1984|journal=Journal of Travel Research|volume=23|issue=1|pages=45–46|issn=0047-2875|doi=10.1177/004728758402300191}}</ref> Many Black women face this harsh reality causing them to go through poverty. When there is poverty within home, the main focus is to make sure the bills are paid. Sometimes causing children to play adult roles and very young age. <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Social support in Black, low-income, single-parent families: Normative and dysfunctional patterns.|last2=Dukes|first2=Joyce Lynn|date=January 1985|journal=American Journal of Orthopsychiatry|volume=55|issue=1|pages=42–58|issn=1939-0025|doi=10.1111/j.1939-0025.1985.tb03420.x|pmid=3970150|last=Lindblad-Goldberg|first=Marion}}</ref> Women trying to balance the mom and dad role, takes away from the moral support certain kids need.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Residence Differences in Formal and Informal Long-Term Care|date=1992-04-01|journal=The Gerontologist|volume=32|issue=2|pages=227–233|issn=0016-9013|doi=10.1093/geront/32.2.227|pmid=1533603|last=Clark|first=D. O.}}</ref>


* [[Family support]]
* [[Cultural support]]
* [[Interpersonal emotion regulation]]
* [[Invisible support]]
* [[Narcissistic supply]]
* [[Peer support]]
* [[Social connection]]
* [[Social undermining]]
* [[Stress (psychological)]]
* [[Supported employment]]
* [[Supported housing]]
* [[Welfare]]
* [[Social Support Questionnaire]]
{{Control de autoridades}}
{{Control de autoridades}}
[[Categoría:Salud mental]]
[[Categoría:Salud mental]]

Revisión del 19:20 10 abr 2020

El apoyo social es una serie de recursos psicológicos (proveniente de otras personas) que son significativas para un individuo y que lo hacen sentirse estimado y valorado.[1]​ Están compuestas por transacciones interpersonales que implican la expresión de afectos positivos y la provisión de ayuda o asistencia a una o más personas. Esto permite que las necesidades sociales básicas de un individuo sean satisfechas por medio de la interacción con otros.[1]

Existe cierta evidencia acerca del apoyo social como uno de los principales determinantes del bienestar subjetivo, ya que el individuo se siente más querido, más satisfecho consigo mismo y con mayor tolerancia al estrés, recursos que son vitales para elegir estrategias de afrontamiento adecuadas según la situación.[2]

Dimensiones del apoyo social

El apoyo social es visto por algunos autores como un concepto multidimensional. Esto lo define como la totalidad de recursos provistos por otras personas y que se pueden distinguir las siguientes dimensiones:[3]

  • Dirección recibida o provista
  • Disposición disponible o ejecutada
  • Contenido emocional, instrumental, informativo y/o evaluativo
  • Red social donde se encuentra (familia, amigos, vecinos, compañeros y/o comunidad)

Por otra parte, se sugiere que se contemple de manera tridimensional:[4]

  • Grado de integración social: análisis de redes sociales que constituyen al individuo en relación con los otros.
  • Apoyo social percibido: Confianza de los individuos hacia la disponibilidad del apoyo social.
  • Apoyo social provisto: las acciones que otros individuos realizan para proveer asistencia a un otro.

Finalmente, otros señalan que el apoyo social como tal no es medible, sino que hay conceptos relacionados a ello que sí se pueden medir:[5]

  • Recursos de la red social de apoyo (conjunto de personas que rutinariamente asisten a un individuo en caso de necesidad).
  • Conductas de apoyo (actos específicos de apoyo).
  • Valoración del apoyo (evaluación subjetiva respecto a la cantidad y contenido de los recursos de apoyo disponibles).
  • Orientación del apoyo (percepción sobre la utilidad y los riesgos de buscar y encontrar ayuda en una red social).

Por el momento no hay una definición única y sólida; además de que es tratado como un fenómeno complejo y compuesto por varias dimensiones, que se asocia con la salud de los individuos. Sin embargo, y a pesar de la controversia generada, la mayoría de las investigaciones coinciden en que el apoyo social juega un papel crucial en los niveles de salud y bienestar del individuo, en forma directa o indirecta, y sobre todo en el desarrollo de conductas adaptativas ante situaciones de estrés.[6]

Beneficios en la salud

Se sostiene que el apoyo social produce ciertos efectos positivos en la salud, principalmente en el estrés, donde es capaz de proteger a un individuo de los factores patógenos que pueden producir los eventos estresantes.[7][8]​ Se postula que el apoyo social puede incrementar el bienestar emocional y físico, o al menos disminuir los efectos negativos y al mismo tiempo favorecer el cambio en las conductas de un individuo, independientemente o no del estrés que posea.[6]​ Otras investigaciones sugieren directamente que, una vez alcanzado cierto umbral en el apoyo social, no resulta en un mayor aumento comparable de bienestar físico y/o mental.[9]

Sin embargo, existe otro modelo de apoyo social que lo contempla como una variable mediadora entre el estrés y la enfermedad.[10][11]​ Esto es, cumplir una función amortiguadora en el individuo que le permite redefinir la situación estresante, afrontarlas mediante estrategias no estresantes e inhibir los procesos psicopatológicos que podrían desencadenarse si hubiera ausencia de apoyo social.[6][12]​ Cuando el individuo tiene la certeza de que dispone de los recursos suficientes, tanto materiales como emocionales, puede evitar definir una situación exigente como estresante y por ende no repercutir negativamente en su salud.[6]

Gender and culture

Gender differences

Gender differences have been found in social support research.[13]​ Women provide more social support to others and are more engaged in their social networks.[14][15][16]​ Evidence has also supported the notion that women may be better providers of social support.[14]​ In addition to being more involved in the giving of support, women are also more likely to seek out social support to deal with stress, especially from their spouses. However, one study indicates that there are no differences in the extent to which men and women seek appraisal, informational, and instrumental types of support. Rather, the big difference lies in seeking emotional support.[17][18]​ Additionally, social support may be more beneficial to women.[19]Shelley Taylor and her colleagues have suggested that these gender differences in social support may stem from the biological difference between men and women in how they respond to stress (i.e., flight or fight versus tend and befriend).[16]​ Married men are less likely to be depressed compared to non-married men after the presence of a particular stressor because men are able to delegate their emotional burdens to their partner, and women have been shown to be influenced and act more in reaction to social context compared to men.[20]​ It has been found that men's behaviors are overall more asocial, with less regard to the impact their coping may have upon others, and women more prosocial with importance stressed on how their coping affects people around them.[21][22]​ This may explain why women are more likely to experience negative psychological problems such as depression and anxiety based on how women receive and process stressors.[20]​ In general, women are likely to find situations more stressful than males are. It is important to note that when the perceived stress level is the same, men and women have much fewer differences in how they seek and use social support.[17]

Cultural differences

Although social support is thought to be a universal resource, cultural differences exist in social support.[13]​ In many Asian cultures, the person is seen as more of a collective unit of society, whereas Western cultures are more individualistic and conceptualize social support as a transaction in which one person seeks help from another. In more interdependent Eastern cultures, people are less inclined to enlist the help of others.[23]​ For example, European Americans have been found to call upon their social relationships for social support more often than Asian Americans or Asians during stressful occasions,[24]​ and Asian Americans expect social support to be less helpful than European Americans.[25]​ These differences in social support may be rooted in different cultural ideas about social groups.[24][25]​ It is important to note that these differences are stronger in emotional support than instrumental support.[23]​ Additionally, ethnic differences in social support from family and friends have been found.[26]

Cultural differences in coping strategies other than social support also exist. One study shows that Koreans are more likely to report substance abuse than European Americans are. Further, European Americans are more likely to exercise in order to cope than Koreans. Some cultural explanations are that Asians are less likely to seek it from fear of disrupting the harmony of their relationships and that they are more inclined to settle their problems independently and avoid criticism. However, these differences are not found among Asian Americans relative to their Europeans American counterparts.[23]

Different cultures have different ways of socials support.[27]​ In African American households support is limited. Many black mothers raise their children without a male figure.[28]​ Women struggle with job opportunities due to job biases and racial discrimination.[29]​ Many Black women face this harsh reality causing them to go through poverty. When there is poverty within home, the main focus is to make sure the bills are paid. Sometimes causing children to play adult roles and very young age. [30]​ Women trying to balance the mom and dad role, takes away from the moral support certain kids need.[31]

  1. a b Perez Bilbao, Jesús (1999). «El apoyo social». Ministerio de trabajo y asuntos sociales. 
  2. Carballeira Abella, Mónica; Marrero Quevedo, Rosario J. (2010-2). «El papel del optimismo y del apoyo social en el bienestar subjetivo». Salud mental 33 (1): 39-46. ISSN 0185-3325. Consultado el 26 de abril de 2019. 
  3. Tardy, Charles (1 de abril de 1985). «Social support measurement.». American Journal of Community Psychology. 
  4. Barrera, Manuel (Enero de 1986). «Distinctions Between Social Support Concepts, Measures, and Models». American Journal of Community Psychology. 
  5. «PsycNET». psycnet.apa.org (en inglés). Consultado el 26 de abril de 2019. 
  6. a b c d Hernández, Bernardo; Campero, Lourdes; Castro, Roberto (1997-08). «La investigación sobre apoyo social en salud: situación actual y nuevos desafíos». Revista de Saúde Pública 31: 425-435. ISSN 0034-8910. doi:10.1590/S0034-89101997000400012. Consultado el 26 de abril de 2019. 
  7. Cohen & Syme (1985). «Issues in the study and application of social support». Social support and health. 
  8. Gore (1985). «Social support and styles of coping with stress». Social support and health. 
  9. House (1981). «Work stress and social support». Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley. 
  10. Cohen & McKay (1984). «Social support, stress and the buffering hypothesis: a theoretical analysis». Handbook of psychology and health. 
  11. Gore. «Stress-buffering functions of social support: an appraisal and clarification of research models». Stressful life events and their contexts. 
  12. Wheaton. «Models for the stress-buffering functions of coping resources». J. Health Soc. Behav. 
  13. a b Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas Cultural
  14. a b Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas T95
  15. Belle, D. (1987). «Gender differences in the social moderators of stress». En Barnett, R.C.; Biener, L.; Baruch, G.K., eds. Gender and stress. New York: The Free Press. pp. 257-277. 
  16. a b Taylor, S.E.; Klein, L.C.; Lewis, B.P; Gruenewald, T.L.; Gurung, R.A.R.; Updegraff, J.A. (2000). «Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight». Psychological Review 107 (3): 411-429. PMID 10941275. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.107.3.411.  Parámetro desconocido |citeseerx= ignorado (ayuda)
  17. a b Day, A.; Livingtone1, H. (2003). «Gender Differences In Perceptions Of Stressors And Utilization Of Social Support Among University Students». Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 35 (2): 73-83. doi:10.1037/h0087190. 
  18. Tamres, L.; Janicki, D.; Helgeson, V.S. (2002). «Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review». Personality and Social Psychology Review 6: 2-30. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0601_1. 
  19. Schwarzer, R.; Leppin, A. (1989). «Social support and health: A meta-analysis». Psychology and Health 3: 1-15. doi:10.1080/08870448908400361. 
  20. a b Hobfoll, S.E.; Cameron, R.P.; Chapman, H.A.; Gallagher, R.W. (1996). «Social support and social coping in couples». Handbook of Social Support and the Family 1. pp. 413-433. ISBN 978-1-4899-1390-6. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1388-3_17. 
  21. Malek, M.J. (2000). Coping profiles within the strategic approach to coping ccale and their relationship to physical and psychological well-being. Kent State University, 1-151.
  22. Roussi, P.; Vassilaki, E. (2000). «The applicability of the multiaxial model of coping to a greek population». Anxiety, Stress, & Coping 14 (2): 125-147. doi:10.1080/10615800108248351. 
  23. a b c Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas Culture and Social Support: Who Seeks It and Why?
  24. a b Taylor, S.E.; Sherman, D.K.; Kim, H.S.; Jarcho, J.; Takagi, K.; Dunagan, M.S. (2004). «Culture and social support: Who seeks it and why?». Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (3): 354-62. PMID 15382985. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.354. 
  25. a b Kim, H.S.; Sherman, D.K.; Ko, D.; Taylor, S.E (2006). «Pursuit of Comfort and Pursuit of Harmony: Culture, Relationships, and Social Support Seeking». Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32 (12): 1596-1607. PMID 17122173. doi:10.1177/0146167206291991.  Parámetro desconocido |citeseerx= ignorado (ayuda)
  26. Sagrestano, L.M.; Feldman, P.; Killingsworth-Rini, C.; Woo, G.; Dunkel-Schetter, C (1999). «Ethnicity and social support during pregnancy». American Journal of Community Psychology 27 (6): 873-902. PMID 10723538. doi:10.1023/a:1022266726892. 
  27. Glazer, Sharon (September 2006). «Social support across cultures». International Journal of Intercultural Relations 30 (5): 605-622. ISSN 0147-1767. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.01.013. 
  28. Stevens, Joseph H. (June 1988). «Social Support, Locus of Control, and Parenting in Three Low-Income Groups of Mothers: Black Teenagers, Black Adults, and White Adults». Child Development 59 (3): 635-642. ISSN 0009-3920. JSTOR 1130563. doi:10.2307/1130563. 
  29. «Land Reform and Tourism Development: Policy-Making In the Phillippines. Linda K. Richter. Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc., 3 Mount Auburn Place, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. 1982. 240p». Journal of Travel Research 23 (1): 45-46. July 1984. ISSN 0047-2875. doi:10.1177/004728758402300191. 
  30. Lindblad-Goldberg, Marion; Dukes, Joyce Lynn (January 1985). «Social support in Black, low-income, single-parent families: Normative and dysfunctional patterns.». American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 55 (1): 42-58. ISSN 1939-0025. PMID 3970150. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1985.tb03420.x. 
  31. Clark, D. O. (1 de abril de 1992). «Residence Differences in Formal and Informal Long-Term Care». The Gerontologist 32 (2): 227-233. ISSN 0016-9013. PMID 1533603. doi:10.1093/geront/32.2.227.