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Armas colectivas

La tradición de los púnicos como innovadores está bien recogida en las fuentes antiguas, como recoge tertuliano varios siglos más tarde,​ el ingeniero militar romano Vitrubio, u otros escritores como Plinio el Viejo, quien afirma - erróneamente, como se ha comprobado por hallazgos arqueológicos - que los púnicos inventaron la honda y la balista.

La guerra en Sicilia, una constante a lo largo de gran parte de la historia militar púnica, poseía unas características singulares. La isla posee dos grandes llanuras costeras, y varios valles interiores que normalmente siguen los cursos de los ríos principales. Las pocas batallas campales que tuvieron lugar en Sicilia se dieron cerca de la costa, especialmente en la parte sur-oriental de la isla. La gran densidad de ciudades, muchas de ellas fortificadas, complicaba el control del territorio y lo supeditaba a una guerra de asedio continua. Como prueba la conquista de la "ciudad-fortaleza" de Lilibea por parte de Pirro, o su posterior fracaso frente a Erice.​ Otro ejemplo resulta la guerra de guerrillas de Amílcar durante la Primera Guerra Púnica, quien utilizó esta última ciudad como base de operaciones gracias a sus defensas naturales.​ La misma Siracusa fue asediada en múltiples ocasiones, tanto por cartagineses como por romanos, y Panormo - actual Palermo - fue conquistada y reconquistada hasta en tres momentos históricos distintos.

Esta constante conquista, fortificación y defensa de ciudades motivó la utilización extensiva de armas colectivas durante casi tres siglos, desde el s. V a. C. hasta finales del siglo II a. C. En cualquier caso, la utilización de armas colectivas se generalizó entre los púnicos, fuera como armas de asedio o como armas defensivas, no sólo en el escenario siciliano. Como ejemplos, tras la caída de Cartago Nova en la Segunda Guerra Púnica, Escipión se apropió de 120 oxibeles de gran tamaño y 281 más pequeños, 23 grandes litobolas y 52 de menor tamaño, sin contar con otras 2500 a las que Livio anacrónicamente llama escorpiones.​ Un siglo más tarde, tras el ultimátum romano a Cartago previo a la Tercera Guerra Púnica, los cartagineses rindieron a Roma 2000 piezas de artillería y máquinas de asedio de diverso calibre como intento desesperado de evitar el conflicto.​

El ariete

El ingeniero y arquitecto romano Vitrubio y su contemporáneo, el griego Ateneo Mecánico, atribuían erróneamente la invención del ariete a los cartagineses.​ No obstante, parece claro que fueron los púnicos en introducir este ingenio de guerra en el ámbito del Mediterráneo, durante el asedio de Gadir, a finales del siglo VI o principios del siglo V a. C.

Un constructor de barcos tirio, de nombre Pefasmeno, perfeccionó el ariete, suspendiendo el ariete en sí, que debía golpear la puerta o muralla, de otro mástil transversal. Utilizando cuerdas, el tronco era balanceado de forma que golpeaba con mayor fuerza sobre la superficie a derribar, lo que era conocido como Aries Prensilis.​

Después cierto artífice tirio llamado Pefasmeno, siguiendo aquella invención y método, plantó un mástil, y pendiente de él ató otro transversalmente a modo de balanza, el cual con el retiro e impulso a fuerza de vehementísimos golpes derribó el muro de Cádiz.

Vitrubio, Diez Libros de Arquitectura X, XIX.60 – 63

Una nueva evolución del ariete fue realizada por el púnico Geras, quien construyó una plataforma móvil sobre ruedas y fijó el ariete horizontalmente a la misma. Éste ya no era empujado mediante polea y cuerdas, sino empujado por un gran número de hombres. Ateneo atribuye también a este cartaginés el blindaje del ariete, añadiendo un techo cubierto a la plataforma móvil del ariete, en lo que sería la primera tortuga.​

Geras fue el inventor de la plataforma protegida, a la cual llamó tortuga, debido a su lentitud. (...) Después de esto, ciertas personas arrastraban rodando el ariete y lo utilizaban de este modo.

Ateneo Mecánico, Mecánica 10.3-4

La artillería

En 398 a. C. Dionisio I de Siracusa contrata a "los mejores ingenieros de todo el Mediterráneo", entre los que se encontraban varios cartagineses, para trabajar sobre el desarrollo de las armas colectivas.​ Estas gestiones tienen como consecuencia el nacimiento de alguno de los primeros ingenios de artillería de torsión, como la catapulta o katapeltikon,​ entre otros inventos, como el políntonon o ballesta gigante, que es capaz de disparar proyectiles de plomo de varios kilos desde una gran distancia.​ Es posible que este último ingenio se basara en el gastrafetes griego, utilizado desde hacía tiempo en la Grecia continental, pero apenas conocido en el Mediterráneo occidental.​

(...) y los siracusanos mataron a muchos enemigos utilizando desde tierra las catapultas que disparaban misiles largos y afilados. En verdad este arma causó un gran desánimo en los cartagineses, pues se trataba de un invento nunca antes visto.

​

Cuando conocieron la magnitud y potencia de los ingenios de Dionisio, los cartagineses decidieron enviar un gran ejército por mar, y cargaron hasta 600 transportes con suministros y "máquinas de guerra", menos de un año después de la caída de Motya.​ Lo que evidencia el conocimiento previo de los púnicos en este área. No obstante, es probable que siguieran basándose en viejos ingenios de artillería de tensión, como el oxibeles.

La revolución tecnológica alcanzó también a los proyectiles. Eneas el Táctico describe uno de los primeros proyectiles incendiarios, fabricado con alquitrán, azufre, estopa, incienso y virutas de madera.

Torres de Asedio

La utilización de torres de asedio por parte de los cartagineses queda documentada en numerosas ocasiones, la primera de ella siendo el asedio a la ciudad siciliana de Selinunte en 409 a. C.​ Durante el asedio, Diodoro menciona la utilización de arietes y de torres que "excedían con mucho la altura de las murallas". Estas máquinas se emplearían poco después en el asedio a Hímera. En estas torres de asedio se fundamentaría posteriormente Dionisio el Viejo para construir la gran torre con que asedió Motya en 397 a. C.​ de seis pisos de altura, la mayor conocida hasta la fecha.​ En cualquier caso, no parece que tuvieran la complicación de las helépolis, utilizadas por primera vez por Alejandro en el asedio de Tiro de 332 a. C. y perfeccionadas por Demetrio Poliorcetes.

Más avanzada resultaba la torre móvil que construyeron los ingenieros de Aníbal durante el asedio a Sagunto. Esta torre, de una altura mayor que las murallas de la ciudad, iba provista de piezas de artillería neurobalística en todos los pisos. La función de estas piezas era barrer de defensores las murallas, destruyendo los parapetos en la parte superior de las mismas para que no pudieran ser empleados de nuevo.​

Refugios y obras de minado

Desde el asedio de Hímera, en que Aníbal recurre a minar el muro de la ciudad,​ varios autores hacen mención a la existencia de zapadores dentro del ejército púnico, especialmente Tito Livio en su narración del asedio de Sagunto, donde indica que Aníbal disponía de un cuerpo de zapadores especializados, unos quinientos africanos "delgados y muy ágiles" que mandó con picos a derribar la muralla, una vez limpia ésta - momentáneamente, por el efecto de la artillería - de defensores.​.

Tanto para que estos zapadores pudieran acercarse a los muros de la ciudad, como para la aproximación de otros ingenios de guerra o arietes, era necesario facilitar una cierta protección. Livio menciona explícitamente la existencia de vineas, galerías protegidas por parapetos, que permitían a los soldados acercarse a las murallas, para efectuar labores de minado o empujar los arietes, mientras quedaban razonablemente protegidos de los proyectiles enemigos.

Además de estas estructuras, Tito Livio, habla de la existencia de puestos de vigilancia permanentes, stationes opera, cartagineses. No deja claro sin embargo si levantaron muros de circunvalación. Sí menciona, no obstante, la creación de una cabeza de puente en la muralla, a la que siguió una fortificación avanzada - castellum - construida con gran rapidez.​

Estos trabajos de asedio resultaban muy importantes para los púnicos, hasta el punto de que hayan llegado a la actualidad los nombres de varios ingenieros al servicio de Aníbal, como Gorgos, ingeniero de minas; o Crates, ingeniero hidráulico.​

Batalla de los Grandes Campos

(Apiano, Pun. 4.19)

204 a. C.: [13] In this way Masinissa made war on the Carthaginians. In the meantime Scipio, having completed his preparations in Sicily, and sacrificed to Jupiter and Neptune, set sail for Africa with fifty-two war-ships and 400 transports, with a great number of smaller craft following behind. His army consisted of 16,000 foot and 1600 horse. He carried also projectiles, arms, and engines of various kinds, and a plentiful supply of provisions. And thus Scipio accomplished his voyage. When the Carthaginians and Syphax learned of this they decided to pretend to make terms with Masinissa for the present, until they should over-come Scipio. Masinissa was not deceived by this scheme. In order to deceive them in turn he marched to Hasdrubal with his cavalry as though he were reconciled to him, fully advising Scipio beforehand. Hasdrubal, Syphax, and Masinissa encamped not far from each other near the city of Utica, to which Scipio had been driven by the winds, and he also was camped hard by. Not far from him was Hasdrubal with an army of 20,000 foot, 7000 horse, and 140 elephants.

[14] Now Syphax, either being moved by fear, or being faithless to all parties in turn, pretended that his country was harassed by the neighboring barbarians, and set out for home. Scipio sent out some detachments to feel the enemy, and at the same time several towns surrendered themselves to him. Then Masinissa came to Scipio's camp secretly by night, and, after mutual greeting, advised him to place not more than 5000 men in ambush on the following day, about thirty stades from Utica, near a tower built by Agathocles, the tyrant of Syracuse. At daybreak he persuaded Hasdrubal to send Hanno, his master of horse, to reconnoitre the enemy and throw himself into Utica, lest the inhabitants, taking advantage of the proximity of the enemy, should start a revolution. He promised to follow if ordered to do so. Hanno set out accordingly with 1000 picked Carthaginian horse and a lot of Africans. Masinissa followed with his Numidians. Thus they came to the tower and Hanno passed on with a small force to Utica. Hereupon a part of the men in ambush showed themselves, and Masinissa advised the officer who was left in command of the cavalry to attack them as being a small force. He followed at a short distance, as if to support the movement. Then the rest of the men in ambush showed themselves and surrounded the Africans; and the Romans and Masinissa together assailed them on all sides and slew all except 400, who were taken prisoners. After he had accomplished this, Masinissa, as though a friend, hastened after Hanno, who was returning, seized him and carried him to Scipio's camp, and exchanged him for his own mother, who was in Hasdrubal's hands.

[15] Scipio and Masinissa ravaged the country and released the Roman prisoners who were digging in the fields, who had been sent thither by Hannibal from Spain, from Sicily, and from Italy itself. They also besieged a large town called Locha, where they met great difficulties. As they were putting up the scaling ladders, the Lochaians asked a parley and offered to leave the city under a truce. Thereupon Scipio sounded a retreat; but the soldiers, angry at what they had suffered in the siege, refused to obey. They scaled the walls and slaughtered indiscriminately, not sparing women and children. Scipio dismissed the survivors in safety; he then deprived the army of its booty and compelled the officers who had disobeyed orders to cast lots publicly, and punished three of them, upon whom the lot had fallen, with death. Having done these things he began ravaging the country again. Hasdrubal sought to draw him into ambush by sending Mago, his master of horse, to attack him in front, while he fell upon his rear. Scipio and Masinissa being surrounded in this way divided their forces into two parts, turning in opposite directions against the enemy, by which means they slew 5000 of the Africans, took 1800 prisoners, and drove the remainder over a precipice.

[16] Soon afterward Scipio besieged Utica by land and sea. He built a tower on two galleys joined together, from which he hurled missiles three cubits long, and also great stones, at the enemy. He inflicted much damage and also suffered much, and the ships were badly shattered. On the landward side he built great mounds, and battered the wall with rams, and tore off with hooks what hides and other coverings were on it. The enemy, on the other hand, undermined the mounds, turned the hooks aside with slipknots, and deadened the force of the rams by interposing transverse wooden beams. They made sallies against the machines with fire whenever the wind was blowing toward them. Whereupon Scipio, despairing of the capture of the city by this means, established a close siege around it.

[17] Syphax, when he learned how things were going, came back with his army and encamped not far from Hasdrubal. Pretending still to be the friend of both parties, and thinking to protract the war until the new ships which were building for the Carthaginians were ready, and the Celtic and Ligurian mercenaries arrived, he proposed an arbitration. He thought that it would be fair for the Romans to discontinue the war in Africa and the Carthaginians in Italy, and that the Romans should retain Sicily, Sardinia, and whatever other islands they now held, and also Spain. He said that if either party should refuse these terms he would join forces with the other. While he was doing this he attempted to draw Masinissa to himself by promising to establish him firmly in the kingdom of the Massylians and to give him in marriage whichever of his three daughters he should choose. The person who delivered this message brought gold also, in order that, if he could not persuade Masinissa, he might bribe one of his servants to kill him. As he did not succeed, he paid the money to one of them to murder him. The servant took the money to Masinissa and exposed the giver. Y.R. 551

203 a. C.: [18] Then Syphax, finding that he could not deceive anybody, joined the Carthaginians openly. He captured, by means of treachery, an inland town named Tholon, where the Romans had a large store of war materials and food, and slew all of the garrison who would not depart on parole. He also called up another large reinforcement of Numidians. And now, as the mercenaries had arrived and the ships were in readiness, they decided to fight, Syphax attacking those besieging Utica, and Hasdrubal the camp of Scipio, while the ships should bear down upon the ships; all these things to be done the next day and at the same time in order to overwhelm the Romans with numbers.

[19] Masinissa learned of these plans at nightfall from certain Numidians, and communicated them to Scipio. The latter was perplexed, being apprehensive lest his army, divided into so many parts, should be too weak to sustain the whole strength of the enemy. He forthwith called his officers to a council at night. Finding that they were all at a loss what to do, and after meditating for a long time himself, he said: "Courage and swiftness, friends, and desperate fighting are our only salvation. We must anticipate the enemy in making the attack. Just see what we shall gain by it. The unexpectedness of the attack and the very strangeness of the thing,-- that those who are so few in number should be the aggressors, will terrify them. We shall employ our strength not divided into several detachments, but all together. We shall not be engaged with all of our enemies at once, but with those we choose to attack first, since their camps are separate from each other. We are their equals in strength when we take them separately, while in courage and good fortune we are their superiors. If heaven shall give us victory over the first, we may despise the others. Upon whom the assault shall be made first, and what shall be the time and manner of delivering it, if you please, I will now tell you."

[20] As they all agreed, he continued: "The time to strike is immediately after this meeting ends, while it is still night, since the blow will be the more terrifying and the enemy will be unprepared, and none will be able to give aid to their allies in the darkness. Thus we shall anticipate their intention of attacking us to-morrow. They have three stations; that of the ships is at a distance, and it is not easy to attack ships by night. Hasdrubal and Syphax are not far from each other. Hasdrubal is the head of the hostile force. Syphax will not dare to do anything at night; he is a barbarian, effeminate and timid. Come now, let us attack Hasdrubal with all our force. We will place Masinissa in ambush for Syphax, if, contrary to expectation, he should move out of his camp. Let us advance with our infantry against Hasdrubal's defences, surround and storm them on every side, with high hope and resolute courage, for these are the things most needed now. As the cavalry are not of much use in a night attack, I will send them to surround the enemy's camp a little farther off, so that if we are overpowered we may have friends to receive us and cover our retreat, and if we are victorious they may pursue the fugitives and destroy them."

[21] Having spoken thus he sent the officers to arm the troops, and he offered sacrifice to Courage and also to Fear1 in order that no panic should overtake them in the night, but that the army should show itself absolutely intrepid. At the third watch the trumpet sounded lightly and the army moved, observing the most profound silence until the cavalry had completely surrounded the enemy and the infantry had arrived at the trenches. Then, with shouts mingled with the discordant blast of trumpets and horns for the purpose of striking terror into the enemy, they swept the guards away from the outposts, filled up the ditch, and tore down the palisades. The boldest, pushing forward, set some of the huts on fire. The Africans, starting in consternation out of sleep, fumbled around for their arms and tried confusedly to get into order of battle, but on account of the noise could not hear the orders of their officers, nor did their general himself know exactly what was happening. The Romans caught them, as they were starting up and trying to arm themselves, with confusion on every hand. They fired more huts and slew those whom they met. The noise of the invaders, their appearance, and the fearful work they were doing in the midst of darkness and uncertainty made the catastrophe complete. Thinking that the camp had been taken, and being afraid of the fire of the burning huts, they were glad to get out of them; and they pushed on to the plain as a safer place. Thus they ran helter-skelter, just as it happened, and the Roman horse, who had completely surrounded them, fell upon them and slaughtered them.

[22] Syphax, hearing the noise and seeing the fire in the night, did not leave his quarters, but sent a detachment of horse to the assistance of Hasdrubal. Masinissa fell upon these unawares and made a great slaughter. At daybreak, learning that Hasdrubal had fled and that his forces were destroyed, or taken prisoners, or dispersed, and that his camp and war material had fallen into the hands of the Romans, he fled precipitately to the interior, leaving every-thing behind, fearing lest Scipio should return from the pursuit of the Carthaginians and fall upon him. Masinissa took possession of his camp and belongings.

[23] Thus by one act of daring and in a little part of a night, did the Romans demolish two camps and two armies much greater than their own. The Romans lost about 100 men killed, the enemy a little less than 30,000, besides 2400 prisoners. Moreover, 600 horse surrendered them-selves to Scipio on his return. Some of the elephants were killed and some wounded. Scipio, having gained a great store of arms, gold, silver, ivory, and horses, Numidian and other, and having prostrated the Carthaginians by one splendid victory, distributed prizes to the army and sent the richest of the spoils to Rome. Then he began drilling the army diligently, expecting the arrival of Hannibal forthwith from Italy, and of Mago from Liguria.

[24] While Scipio was thus engaged, Hasdrubal, the Carthaginan general, who had been wounded in the night engagement, fled with 500 horse to the town of Anda, where he collected some mercenaries and Numidians who had escaped from the battle, and proclaimed freedom to all slaves who would enlist. Learning that the Carthaginians had decreed the penalty of death against him for his bad generalship, and had chosen Hanno, the son of Bomilcar, as commander, he made this an army of his own, recruited a lot of malefactors, robbed the country for provisions, and drilled his men to the number of 3000 horse and 8000 foot, resting his hopes solely on fighting. His doings were for a long time unknown to both the Romans and the Carthaginians. And now Scipio, having his army in readiness, led it to Carthage itself and haughtily offered battle, but nobody responded. Meanwhile Hamilcar, the admiral, hastened with 100 ships to attack Scipio's naval station, hoping to outstrip him in reaching the place, and thinking that he could easily destroy the twenty Roman ships there with his hundred.

[25] Scipio, seeing him sail away, sent orders ahead to block up the entrance to the harbor with ships of burthen anchored at intervals so that the galleys could dart out, as through gates, when they should see an opportunity. These ships were bound together by their yard arms and fastened to each other so as to form a wall. This work done he entered into the action. When the Carthaginians made their attack their ships were battered by missiles from the Roman ships, from the shore, and from the walls, and they with-drew at evening discomfited. As they were retreating, the Romans pressed upon them, darting out through the open spaces, and when they were overpowered withdrawing again. They took one ship in tow without any men and brought it to Scipio. After this both combatants went into winter quarters. The Romans received plentiful supplies by sea, but the Uticans and Carthaginians, being pinched with hunger, robbed the merchant ships until new galleys, sent to Scipio from Rome, blockaded the enemy and put an end to their plundering, after which they were severely oppressed by hunger.