Ir al contenido

Diferencia entre revisiones de «Bandera de Japón»

De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre
Explorar historial interactivamente
← Ir a diferencia anteriorIr a siguiente diferencia →
Contenido eliminado Contenido añadido
VisualWikitexto
SieBot (discusión · contribs.)
228 138 ediciones
m robot Modificado: nah:Īpān Xapon
Rαge (discusión · contribs.)
45 710 ediciones
m + {{en obras}}
Línea 1: Línea 1:
{{en obras|Rαge}}
[[Archivo:Flag of Japan.svg|thumb|right|300px|[[Archivo:FIAV 110110.svg|20px]] Ratio: 2:3]]
[[Archivo:Flag of Japan.svg|thumb|right|300px|[[Archivo:FIAV 110110.svg|20px]] Ratio: 2:3]]


Línea 19: Línea 20:
Image:Flag of the Japanese Emperor.svg|[[Estandarte Imperial de Japón|Estandarte Imperial]]
Image:Flag of the Japanese Emperor.svg|[[Estandarte Imperial de Japón|Estandarte Imperial]]
</gallery>
</gallery>
<!--
{{Infobox flag
|Name = Japan
|Image = Flag of Japan.svg
|Nickname = ''Nisshōki''<ref name="law"/> or ''Hinomaru''<ref name="sfcon"/>
|Use = 110110
|Symbol =
|Proportion = 2:3<ref name="law"/>
|Adoption = August 13, 1999 ([[Heisei]] 11)<br />
February 27, 1870 (January 27, Meiji 3 in the [[Japanese calendar]]) <small>(as the civil ensign by Proclamation No. 57)</small>
|Design = A red sun-disc centered on a white field
|Type = National
}}
The national '''flag of [[Japan]]''' is a white rectangular [[flag]] with a large red disk (representing the sun) in the center. This flag is officially called {{nihongo|'''''Nisshōki'''''|日章旗||"sun-mark flag"}} in Japanese, but is more commonly known as {{nihongo|'''''Hinomaru'''''|日の丸||"sun disc"}}.

The ''Nisshōki'' flag is designated as the national flag in [[Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem (Japan)|Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem]], which was promulgated and became effective on August 13, 1999. Although no earlier legislation had specified a national flag, the sun-disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan. Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the [[Daijō-kan]], the governmental body of the early Meiji Era, each had a provision for a design of the national flag. A sun-disc flag was adopted as the national flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No. 57 of Meiji 3 (issued on February 27, 1870<!--January 27 in JP calendar-->), and as the national flag used by Navy under Proclamation No. 651 of Meiji 3 (issued on October 27, 1870<!--October 3 in JP calendar-->). Use of the ''Hinomaru'' was severely restricted during the early years of the [[Occupation of Japan|American occupation]] after [[World War&nbsp;II]], although restrictions were later relaxed.

In early Japanese history, the ''Hinomaru'' motif was used on flags of [[daimyo]]s and [[samurai]]. During the [[Meiji Restoration]], both the sun disc and the [[Rising Sun Flag|Rising Sun Ensign]] of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] became major symbols in the emerging [[Empire of Japan|Japanese empire]]. Propaganda posters, textbooks, and films depicted the flag as a source of pride and patriotism. In Japanese homes, citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays, celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government. Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its emperor featuring the ''Hinomaru'' motif became popular during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and other conflicts. These tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag.

Public perception of the national flag varies. To some Japanese, the flag represents Japan, and no other flag could take its place. However, the flag is not frequently displayed due to its association with extreme nationalism. The use of the flag and the national anthem ''[[Kimigayo]]'' have been a contentious issue for Japan's public schools since the end of World War&nbsp;II. Disputes about their use have led to protests, lawsuits, and at least one suicide in [[Hiroshima Prefecture]]. To Okinawans, the flag represents the events of World War&nbsp;II and the subsequent U.S. military presence there. For some nations occupied by Japan, the flag is a symbol of aggression and imperialism. The ''Hinomaru'' was used as a tool against occupied nations for purposes of intimidation or subjugation. Despite the negative connotations, Western and Japanese sources claim the flag is a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese. Several [[List of Japanese flags#Military|military banners of Japan]] are based on the ''Hinomaru'', including the sunrayed Naval Ensign. The ''Hinomaru'' also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public and private use.

==History==
{{FixBunching|beg}}
[[File:1939 Family photo from Nagano.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=A family gathers around a young boy in a military uniform, surrounded by banners and flags. Some of the children also hold flags.|1930s photo of a military enrollment. The ''Hinomaru'' is displayed on the house and held by several children.]]
{{FixBunching|end}}
:''For a list of historical flags, see [[List of Japanese flags#Historical]].''

===Before 1900===
The exact origin of the ''Hinomaru'' is unknown,<ref name="webjapanen"/> but the rising sun seems to have had some symbolic meaning since the early 7th century. In 607, an official correspondence that began with "from the emperor of the rising sun" was sent to [[Emperor Yang of Sui]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dyer|1909|pp=24.}}</ref> Japan is often referred to as "the land of the rising sun".<ref>{{Harvnb|Edgington|2003|pp=123–124.}}</ref> In the 12th-century work, ''[[The Tale of the Heike]]'', it was written that different [[samurai]] carried drawings of the sun on their fans.<ref name="Itoh 205">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|pp=205.}}</ref> Another possible reason for the use of the sun was that the Japanese warrior wanted simple and elegant designs to reflect the well mannered and cultured status of the samurai.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holden|1916|pp=154.}}</ref> One legend related to the national flag is attributed to the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] priest [[Nichiren]]. Supposedly, during a 13th-century [[Mongolia]]n invasion of Japan, Nichiren gave a sun banner to the [[shogun]] to carry into battle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Feldman|2004|pp=151–155.}}</ref> The sun is also closely related to the Imperial family as legend states the imperial throne was descended from the sun goddess [[Amaterasu]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ashkenzai|2003|pp=112–113.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hall|1996|pp=110.}}</ref>

One of Japan's oldest flags is housed at the Unpo-ji temple in [[Yamanashi Prefecture]]. Legend states it was given by [[Emperor Reizei]] to [[Minamoto no Yoshimitsu]] and has been treated as a family treasure by the [[Takeda clan]] for the past 1000 years, but the historical accuracy of this account is questionable.<ref name="japantimes">{{vcite news |author=Hongo, Jun |title=Hinomaru, 'Kimigayo' express conflicts both past and future |date=2007-07-17 |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070717i1.html |work=The Japan Times |accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref>

The earliest recorded flags in Japan date from the [[Azuchi–Momoyama period|unification period]] in the late 16th century. The flags belonged to each [[Daimyo]] and were used primarily in battle. Most of the flags were long banners usually charged with the [[mon (badge)|mon]] (family crest) of the Daimyo lord. Members of the same family, such as a son, father, and brother, had different flags to carry into battle. The flags served as identification, and were displayed by soldiers on their backs and horses. Generals also had their own flags, most of which differed from soldiers' flags due to their square shape.<ref>{{Harvnb|Turnbull|2001}}</ref>

In 1854, during the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], Japanese ships were ordered to hoist the ''Hinomaru'' to distinguish themselves from foreign ships.<ref name="Itoh 205"/> Before then, different types of ''Hinomaru'' flags were used on vessels that were trading with the Americans and Russians.<ref name="webjapanen"/> The ''Hinomaru'' was decreed the merchant flag of Japan in 1870 and was the legal national flag from 1870 to 1885, making it the first national flag Japan adopted.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodman, Neary|1996|pp=77–78.}}</ref><ref>{{vcite web|url=http://crd.ndl.go.jp/GENERAL/servlet/detail.reference?id=1000057111 |title=レファレンス事例詳細 |trans_title=Reference Case Details |accessdate=2009-11-20 |date=2009-07-02 |publisher=National Diet Library |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref>

While the idea of national symbols was strange to the Japanese, the Meiji Government needed them to communicate with the outside world. This became especially important after the landing of U.S. Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry|Matthew Perry]] in Yokohama Bay.<ref>{{Harvnb|Feiler|2004|pp=214.}}</ref> Further Meiji Government implementations gave more identifications Japan, including the anthem ''Kimigayo'' and the imperial seal.<ref name="Ohnuki-Tierney 68–69">{{Harvnb|Ohnuki-Tierney|2002|pp=68–69.}}</ref> In 1885, all previous laws not published in the Official Gazette of Japan were abolished.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rohl|2005|pp=20.}}</ref> Because of this ruling by the new cabinet of Japan, the ''Hinomaru'' was the ''de facto'' national flag since no law was in place after the [[Meiji Restoration]].<ref name="defacto">{{Harvnb|Befu|1992|pp=32–33.}}</ref>

===Early conflicts and the Pacific War===
[[File:Manchuguo Poster.harmony of J,C and Mpeople.jpg|thumb|alt=Three children holding flags in front of a building and a rising sun|[[Propaganda]] poster promoting harmony among [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], and [[Manchu]]. The caption reads "With the cooperation of Japan, China, and Manchukuo, the world can be in peace."]]
The use of the national flag grew as Japan developed into an empire, and the ''Hinomaru'' was present at celebrations after victories in the [[First Sino-Japanese War|First Sino-Japanese]] and [[Russo-Japanese War]]s. The flag was also used in war efforts throughout the country.<ref name="Befu 92–95">{{Harvnb|Befu|2001|pp=92–95.}}</ref> A Japanese propaganda film in 1934 portrayed foreign national flags as incomplete or defective with their designs, while the Japanese flag is perfect in all forms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nornes|2003|pp=81.}}</ref> In 1937, a group of girls from [[Hiroshima Prefecture]] showed solidarity with Japanese soldiers fighting in China during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], by eating "flag meals" that consisted of an [[umeboshi]] in the middle of a bed of rice. The ''Hinomaru [[bento]]'' became the main symbol of Japan's war mobilization and solidarity with her soldiers until the 1940s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cwiertka|2007|pp=117–119.}}</ref>

Japan's early victories in the Sino-Japanese War resulted in the ''Hinomaru'' again being used for celebrations. It was seen in the hands of every Japanese during parades.<ref name="Befu 92–95"/>

Textbooks during this period also had the ''Hinomaru'' printed with various slogans expressing devotion to the Emperor and the country. Patriotism was taught as a virtue to Japanese children. Expressions of patriotism, such as displaying the flag or worshiping the Emperor daily, were all part of being a "good Japanese."<ref>{{Harvnb|Partner|2004|pp=55–56.}}</ref>

The flag was a tool of Japanese imperialism in the occupied Southeast Asian areas during World War II: people had to use the flag,<ref>{{Harvnb|Tipton|2002|pp=137.}}</ref> and schoolchildren sang ''Kimigayo'' in morning flag raising ceremonies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Newell|1982|pp=28.}}</ref> Local flags were allowed for some areas such as the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Manchukuo]].<ref>{{vcite news | title=The Camera Overseas: The Japanese People Voted Against Frontier Friction | date=1937-06-21 |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=1UQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA74&dq=Manchukuo+flag&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=12#v=onepage&q=Manchukuo%20flag&f=false | work =TIME | page =75 | accessdate = 2010-01-19}}</ref>
<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.nhi.gov.ph/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=26 |title=The Controversial Philippine National Flag |accessdate=2010-01-19 |date=2008 |format=PDF |publisher=National Historical Institute }}</ref>
<ref>{{Harvnb|Taylor|2004|pp=321.}}</ref> In certain colonies such as [[Korea]], the ''Hinomaru'' and other symbols were used to relegate the Koreans to second-class status in the empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodman, Neary|1996|pp=102.}}</ref>

To the Japanese, the ''Hinomaru'' was the "Rising Sun flag that would light the darkness of the entire world."<ref>{{Harvnb|Ebrey|2004|pp=443.}}</ref> To Westerners, it was one of the Japanese military's most powerful symbols.<ref>{{vcite news |author=Hauser, Ernest | title=Son of Heaven | date=1940-06-10 | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=4j8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA79&dq=japanese+flag+loyal+emperor&lr=&as_brr=0&client=firefox-a&cd=7#v=onepage&q=japanese%20flag%20loyal%20emperor&f=false | work =LIFE | page =79 | accessdate = 2010-01-17 }}</ref>

===U.S. occupation=== <!--Flag of Germany links here -->
[[File:Surrender of Japanese Forces in Southern Korea.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Men in military dress watch a flag being lowered.|The ''Hinomaru'' is lowered in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea|Korea]], on September 9, 1945, the day of the surrender.]]
The ''Hinomaru'' was the ''[[de facto]]'' flag throughout World War&nbsp;II and the occupation period.<ref name="defacto"/> During the [[occupation of Japan]] after [[World War&nbsp;II]], permission from the [[Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers]] (SCAPJ) was needed to fly the ''Hinomaru''.<ref name="flag45">{{vcite web |url=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/11/09/990906j.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080110115759/http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/11/09/990906j.htm |archivedate=2008-01-10 |title=国旗，国歌の由来等 |trans_title=Origin of the National Flag and Anthem |publisher=Ministry of Education |language={{ja icon}} |date=1999-09-01 |accessdate=2007-12-01}}</ref><ref name='Goodman'/> Sources differ on the degree to which the use of the ''Hinomaru'' flag was restricted; some use the term "banned;"<ref name='Wesiman'/><ref name="banned">{{vcite book |author=Hardarce, Helen; Adam L. Kern | title = New Directions in the Study of Meiji Japan | publisher = Brill | date = 1997 | page = 653 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=pXlZoSjXb2QC&pg=PA653&dq=Japanese+flag+banned&cd=10#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20flag%20banned&f=false |isbn = 9004107355 }}</ref> however, while the original restrictions were severe, they did not amount to an outright ban.<ref name="defacto"/>

After World War&nbsp;II, an [[ensign]] was used by Japanese civil ships of the United States Naval Shipping Control Authority for Japanese Merchant Marines.<ref name="scajape">{{vcite web |url=http://homepage2.nifty.com/captysd/yomoyama/syometu.htm |title=邦人船員消滅 |trans_title= Kunihito crew extinguished |author=吉田 藤人 |language={{ja icon}} |accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref> Modified from the "E" [[International maritime signal flags|signal code]], the ensign was used from September 1945 until the U.S. occupation of Japan ceased.<ref>{{vcite book | author = University of Leicester | title = The Journal of Transport History | publisher = University of Leicester | year = 1987 | location = Manchester, United Kingdom | page = 41 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=pYO2AAAAIAAJ&q=flag+SCAJAP+Easy&dq=flag+SCAJAP+Easy&lr=&client=firefox-a&cd=1}}</ref> U.S. ships operating in Japanese waters used a modified "O" signal flag as their ensign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carr, Hulme|1956|pp=200.}}</ref>

On May 2, 1947, General [[Douglas MacArthur]] lifted the restrictions on displaying the ''Hinomaru'' in the grounds of the [[National Diet Building]], on the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace|Imperial Palace]], on the [[Kantei|Prime Minister's residence]] and on the Supreme Court building with the ratification of the new [[Constitution of Japan]].<ref name="47letter">{{vcite web |url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/shiryo/05/002_23/002_23tx.html |title=Letter from Shigeru Yoshida to General MacArthur dated May 2, 1947|publisher=National Diet Library |author=Yoshida, Shigeru |language={{ja icon}}, English |date=1947-05-02 |accessdate=2007-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/shiryo/05/142/142tx.html |title=Letter from Douglas MacArthur to Prime Minister dated May 2, 1947|accessdate=2009-12-10 |author=MacArthur, Douglas |date=1947-05-02 |publisher=National Archives of Japan }}</ref> Those restrictions were further relaxed in 1948, when people were allowed to fly the flag on national holidays. In January 1949, the restrictions were abolished and anyone could fly the ''Hinomaru'' at any time without permission. As a result, schools and homes were encouraged to fly the ''Hinomaru'' until the early 1950s.<ref name="flag45" />

===Postwar to 1999===
[[File:Japan joins the United Nations.jpg|thumb|alt=A group of men and women watching a flag being raised.|The ''Hinomaru'' being raised at the [[United Nations]] headquarters in [[New York City]] in 1956]]
Since World War&nbsp;II, Japan's flag has been criticized for its association with the country's [[militarism|militaristic]] past. Similar objections have also been raised to the current national anthem of Japan, ''[[Kimigayo]]''.<ref name="japantimes" /> The feelings about the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' represented a general shift from a patriotic feeling about "Dai Nippon"&nbsp;– Great Japan&nbsp;– to the pacifist and anti-militarist "Nihon". Because of this ideological shift, the flag was used less often in Japan directly after the war even though restrictions were lifted by the SCAPJ in 1949.<ref name='Goodman'>{{harvnb|Goodman, Neary|1996|pp=81–83.}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Meyer|2009|pp=266.}}</ref>

As Japan began to re-establish itself diplomatically, the ''Hinomaru'' was used as a political weapon overseas. In a visit by the Emperor [[Hirohito]] and the [[Empress Kōjun]] to the [[Netherlands]], the ''Hinomaru'' was burned by Dutch citizens who demanded that either he be sent home to Japan or tried for the deaths of Dutch [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] during the Second World War.<ref>{{Harvnb|Large|1992|pp=184.}}</ref> Domestically, the ''Hinomaru'' was not even used in protests against a new [[Status of Forces Agreement]] being negotiated between U.S. and Japan. The most common flag used by the trade unions and other protesters was the [[red flag]] of revolt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yamazumi|1988|pp=76.}}</ref>

An issue with the ''Hinomaru'' and national anthem was raised once again when Tokyo hosted the [[1964 Summer Olympics|1964 Summer Olympic Games]]. Before the Olympic Games, the size of the sun disc of the national flag was changed partly because the sun disc was not considered striking when it was being flown with other national flags.<ref name='Goodman'/> Tadamasa Fukiura, a color specialist, chose to set the sun disc at two thirds of the flag's length. Fukiura also chose the flag colors for the 1964 as well as the [[1998 Winter Olympics]] in Nagano.<ref>{{vcite video|people=Fukiura, Tadamasa|title=ブラックマヨネーズ|medium=TV|publisher=New Star Creation|location=Japan|date=2009}}</ref>

In 1989, the death of Emperor [[Hirohito]] once again raised moral issues about the national flag. Conservatives felt that if the flag could be used during the ceremonies without reopening old wounds, they may have a chance to propose the ''Hinomaru'' become the national flag without being challenged about its meaning.<ref name="Borneman 112">{{harvnb|Borneman|2003|pp=112.}}</ref> During an official six day mourning period, flags were flown at half staff or draped in black bunting all across Japan.<ref>{{vcite news |author=Chira, Susan | title=Hirohito, 124th Emperor of Japan, Is Dead at 87 | date=1989-01-07 | url =http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0429.html | work =The New York Times | accessdate = 2010-01-30 }}</ref> Despite reports of protesters vandalizing the ''Hinomaru'' on the day of the Emperor's funeral,<ref>{{harvnb|Kataoka|1991|pp=149.}}</ref> schools' right to fly the ''Hinomaru'' at [[half-staff]] without reservations brought success to the conservatives.<ref name="Borneman 112"/>

===Since 1999===
[[File:国旗及び国歌に関する法律.jpg|thumb|alt=A page with Asian characters and a black-and-white version of the Japanese flag left above|The ''Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem'' as it appears in the Official Gazette on August 15, 1999]]
The ''[[Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem (Japan)|Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem]]'' was passed in 1999, choosing both the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' as Japan's national symbols. The passage of the law stemmed from a suicide of a school principal in Hiroshima who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aspinall|2001|pp=126.}}</ref>

[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Keizō Obuchi]] of the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) decided to draft legislation to make the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' official symbols of Japan in 2000. His [[Chief Cabinet Secretary]], [[Hiromu Nonaka]], wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of the coronation of [[Akihito]] as Emperor.

Main supporters of the bill were the LDP and the [[Komeito]] (CGP), while the opposition included the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDPJ) and [[Japanese Communist Party|Communist Party]] (CPJ), who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era. The CPJ was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public. Meanwhile, the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ) could not develop party consensus on it. President of the DPJ, [[Naoto Kan]] stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=11044 |title=国旗国歌法制化についての民主党の考え方 |accessdate=2010-01-17 |date=1999-07-21 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |trans_title=The DPJ Asks For A Talk About the Flag and Anthem Law|language={{ja icon}} }}</ref> Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister [[Yukio Hatoyama]] thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools.<ref name="Itoh 2003 209–210">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|pp=209–210}}</ref>

The House of Representatives passed the bill on July 22, 1999, by a 403 to 86 vote.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14507220001047c.html |title=第１４５回国会　本会議　第４７号 |accessdate=2010-01-17 |date=1999-07-22 |publisher=National Diet Library |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref> The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on July 28 and was passed on August 9. It was enacted into law on August 13.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1CE3AB6.htm |title=議案審議経過情報: 国旗及び国歌に関する法律案 |accessdate=2010-01-17 |date=1999-08-13 |publisher=House of Representatives |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref> Attempts to designate only the ''Hinomaru'' as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8506 |title=国旗・国歌法案、衆院で可決　民主党は自主投票 |accessdate=2010-01-18 |trans_title=Flag and Anthem Law Passed by the House, DPJ Free Vote |date=1999-07-22 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref>

On August 8, 2009, a photograph was taken at a DPJ rally for the [[Japanese general election, 2009|House of Representatives election]] showing a banner that was hanging from a ceiling. The banner was made of two ''Hinomaru'' flags cut and sewn together to form the shape of the DPJ logo. This infuriated the LDP and Prime Minister [[Taro Aso]], saying this act was unforgivable. In response, DPJ President Yukio Hatoyama (who voted for the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem)<ref name="Itoh 2003 209–210"/> said that the banner was not the ''Hinomaru'' and should not be regarded as such.<ref name='dpjrally'>{{vcite news | title=【日本の議論】日の丸裁断による民主党旗問題　国旗の侮辱行為への罰則は是か非か |trans_title= (Japan) Discussion of penalties of acts of contempt against the Hinomaru by the DPJ | date=2009-08-30 | publisher=Sankei Digital | url =http://sankei.jp.msn.com/life/trend/090830/trd0908301601006-n1.htm | work =Sankei Shimbun | accessdate = 2009-09-06 | language = {{ja icon}} }}</ref>

==Design==
[[File:Construction sheet of the Japanese flag no text.svg|thumb|alt=The flag has a ratio of two by three. The diameter of the sun is three-fifths of the length of the flag. The sun is placed directly in the center.|Construction sheet]]
Passed in 1870, the Prime Minister's Proclamation No.&nbsp;57 had two provisions related to the national flag. The first provision specified who flew the flag and how it was flown; the second specified how the flag was made.<ref name="webjapanen">{{vcite web |url=http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/11NFlagAnthem.pdf |title=National Flag and Anthem |home=Web Japan |publisher=Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs |year=2000 |accessdate=2009-12-11 |format=PDF}}</ref> The ratio was seven units length and ten units width (7:10). The red disc, which represents the sun, was calculated to be three-fifths of the total size of the [[Flag terminology|hoist length]]. The law decreed the disc to be in the center, but it was usually placed one-hundredths (1/100) towards the hoist.<ref>{{Harvnb|明治3年太政官布告第57号}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Takenaka|2003|pp=68–69.}}</ref> In October 3 of the same year, regulations about the design of the merchant ensign and other naval flags were passed.<ref name="reg651">{{Harvnb|明治3年太政官布告第651号}}</ref> For the merchant flag, the ratio was two units length and three units width (2:3). The size of the disc remained the same, however the sun disc was placed one-twentieth (1/20) towards the hoist.<ref>{{Harvnb|Takenaka|2003|pp=66.}}</ref>

When the ''[[Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem (Japan)|Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem]]'' passed, the dimensions of the flag were slightly altered.<ref name="law">{{Harvnb|国旗及び国歌に関する法律}}</ref> The overall ratio of the flag was changed to two units length by three units width (2:3). The red disc was shifted towards dead center, but the overall size of the disc stayed the same.<ref name="sfcon">{{vcite web|url=http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/jp/m08_01_01.htm#5 |title=Basic / General Information on Japan |accessdate=2009-11-19 |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=Consulate-General of Japan in San Francisco }}</ref> The background of the flag is white and the sun disc is red　({{nihongo|紅色|beni iro}}), but the exact color shades were not defined in the 1999 law.<ref name="law" /> The only hint given about the red color that it is a "deep" shade.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.cao.go.jp/en/flag_anthem.html |title= National Flag & National Anthem |accessdate=2010-01-02 |date=2006 |publisher=Cabinet Office, Government of Japan }}</ref>

Issued by the Japan Defense Agency (now the [[Ministry of Defense (Japan)|Ministry of Defense]]) in 1973 ([[Shōwa period|Showa]] 48), specifications list the red color of the flag as 5R 4/12 and the white as N9 in the [[Munsell]] color chart.<ref name="z8701">{{vcite web| url=http://www.mod.go.jp/j/info/nds/siyousyo/dsp_list_j.htm#Z8701 |title=Defense Specification Z 8701C (DSPZ8701C) |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language={{ja icon}} |date=1973-11-27 |accessdate=2009-07-09}}</ref> The document was changed on March 21, 2008 ([[Heisei]] 20) to match the flag's construction with current legislation and updated the Munsell colors. The document lists [[acrylic fiber]] and [[nylon]] as fibers that could be used in construction of flags used by the military. For acrylic, the red color is 5.7R 3.7/15.5 and white is N9.4; nylon has 6.2R 4/15.2 for red and N9.2 for white.<ref name="z8701"/> In a document issued by the [[Official Development Assistance (Japan)|Official Development Assistance]] (ODA), the red color for the ''Hinomaru'' and the ODA logo is listed as [[Dainippon Ink & Chemicals|DIC]] 156 and [[CMYK color model|CMYK]] 0-100-90-0.<ref name='odamark'>{{vcite web|url=http://www.jica.go.jp/announce/musho/info/consultant/13.pdf |title=日章旗のマーク、ODAシンボルマーク |trans_title=National flag mark, ODA Symbol |accessdate=2009-09-06 |format=PDF |publisher=Office of Developmental Assistance |language={{ja icon}} |date=1995-09-01 }}</ref> During deliberations about the ''Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem'', there was a suggestion to either use a bright red ({{nihongo|赤色|aka iro}}) shade or from the color pool of the [[Japanese Industrial Standards]].<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/sangiin/145/0044/14508020044004a.html |title=第１４５回国会　国旗及び国歌に関する特別委員会　第４号 |accessdate=2010-02-01 |date=1999-08-02 |publisher=National Diet Library |trans_title=145th Meeting of the Diet, Discussion about the bill ''Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem'' |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|-
! Official color (White)
! Official color (Red)
! Color system
! Source
! Year
! URL
|-
| {{color box|#e2e2e2}} N9 <ref name="feel">Hexadecimal obtained by placing the colors in [http://www.feelimage.jp/analyzer/productinfo_3.htm Feelimage Analyzer]</ref>
| {{color box|#b0313f}} 5R 4/12 <ref name="feel"/>
| Munsell
| DSP Z 8701C
| Showa 48/1973
| <ref name="z8701"/>
|-
| N/A
| {{color box|#EE1132}} 156 <ref name='DIC'>{{vcite web|url=https://www.dic.co.jp/cgi-bin/cs_result7.cgi |title=DICカラーガイド情報検索 (ver 1.4) |trans_title=DIC Color Guide Information Retrieval (version 1.4) |accessdate=2009-09-15 |publisher=DIC Corporation |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref>
| DIC
| ODA Symbol Mark Guidelines
| Heisei 7/1995
| <ref name='odamark'/>
|-
| N/A
| {{color box|#ff001a}} 0-100-90-0
| CMYK
| ODA Symbol Mark Guidelines
| Heisei 7/1995
| <ref name='odamark'/>
|-
| {{color box|#eeeeee}} N9.4 (Acrylic) <ref name="feel"/>
| {{color box|#bc002d}} 5.7R 3.7/15.5 (Acrylic) <ref name="feel"/>
| Munsell
| DSP Z 8701E
| Heisei 20/2008
| <ref name="z8701"/>
|-
| {{color box|#e8e8e8}} N9.2 (Nylon) <ref name="feel"/>
| {{color box|#c00d2e}} 6.2R 4/15.2 (Nylon) <ref name="feel"/>
| Munsell
| DSP Z 8701E
| Heisei 20/2008
| <ref name="z8701"/>
|-
| N/A
| {{color box|#ed2939}} 032 Coated<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx |title=Pantone 032 Coated |accessdate=2009-12-09 |home=Find a PANTONE color |publisher=Pantone LLC }}</ref>
| [[Pantone]]
| [[2008 Summer Olympics]] Protocol Guide&nbsp;– Flag Manual
| 2008
| <ref>{{vcite book | title = Flag Manual | publisher = Beijing Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad&nbsp;– Protocol Division | date = 2008 | location = Beijing, China | pages = B5 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref>
|}

==Use and customs==
[[File:DexterDwight1943.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Two men in uniform, one holding a flag.|An example of a ''Hinomaru Yosegaki''; Commander Dwight Hodge Dexter explains the Japanese flag (memento of his exploits) to LTJG Mel Venter during a 1943 conference in [[San Francisco]].]]

When the ''Hinomaru'' was first introduced, the government required citizens to greet the emperor with the flag. There was some resentment among the Japanese over the flag, resulting in some protests. It took some time for the flag to gain acceptance among the people.<ref name="Ohnuki-Tierney 68–69"/>

During World War&nbsp;II, it was a popular custom for friends, classmates, and relatives of a deploying soldier to sign a ''Hinomaru'' and present it to him. The flag was also used as a good luck charm and a prayer to wish the soldier back safely from battle. One term for this kind of charm is ''Hinomaru Yosegaki'' (日の丸寄せ書き).<ref name='yosegaki'>{{vcite web|url=http://www.city.himeji.lg.jp/koho/press/_18144/_18145/_18955.html |title=開催中の平和資料館収蔵品展から「日の丸寄せ書き」について |trans_title= Museum collections from the exhibition "Group flag efforts" being held for peace |accessdate=2009-09-25 |publisher=City of Himeji, Hyogo Prefecture |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref> One tradition is that any writing must not touch the sun disc.<ref name='smith75'>{{Harvnb|Smith|1975|pp=171.}}</ref> After battles, these flags were often captured or later found on deceased Japanese soldiers. While these flags became souvenirs,<ref name="smith75"/> there has been a growing trend of sending the signed flags back to the descendants of the soldier.<ref>{{vcite news |author=McBain, Roger | title=Going back home | date=2005-07-09 | publisher= | url =http://www.rose.sannet.ne.jp/nishiha/iryuhin/medea/cpress.html | work =Courier & Press | pages = | accessdate = 2009-09-25 | language = }}</ref>

The tradition for signing the ''Hinomaru'' as a good luck charm still continues, but in a limited fashion. The ''Hinomaru Yosegaki'' could be shown at sporting events to give support to the Japanese national team.<ref>{{Harvnb|Takenaka|2003|pp=101.}}</ref> Another example is the ''[[hachimaki]]'' headband, which was white in color and had the red sun in the middle. During World War&nbsp;II, the phrases {{nihongo|"Certain Victory"|必勝|Hisshō}} or "Seven Lives" was written on the ''hachimaki'' and worn by [[kamikaze]] pilots. This denoted that the pilot was willing to die for his country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2001|pp=271.}}</ref>

Before World War&nbsp;II, all homes were required to display ''Hinomaru'' on national holidays.<ref name="defacto"/> Since the war, the display of the flag of Japan is mostly limited to buildings attached to national and local governments such as city halls; it is rarely seen at private homes or commercial buildings,<ref name="defacto"/> but some people and companies have advocated displaying the flag on holidays. Although the government of Japan encourages citizens and residents to fly the ''Hinomaru'' during national holidays, they are not legally required to do so.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://web-japan.org/factsheet/archives/ja/pdf/J11_flagan.pdf |title=国旗と国歌 |trans_title=National Flag and Anthem |accessdate=2009-12-11 |format=PDF |home=Web Japan |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref><ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.sangiin.go.jp/japanese/joho1/kousei/syuisyo/019/touh/t019009.htm |title=答弁書第九号 |accessdate=2010-02-01 |author=Yoshida, Shigeru |date=1954-04-27 |publisher=House of Councillors |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref> Since [[The Emperor's Birthday|the Emperor's 80th Birthday]] on December 23, 2002, the [[Kyushu Railway Company]] has displayed the ''Hinomaru'' at 330 stations.<ref name="47news">{{vcite web |url=http://www.47news.jp/CN/200211/CN2002112601000363.html |title=ＪＲ九州、日の丸を掲揚へ 有人３３０駅、祝日に |trans_title=JR Kyushu 330 manned stations to hoist the national flag |publisher=47news |language={{ja icon}} |date=2002-11-26}}</ref>

==Present-day perception==
[[File:Japanemperorbirthday.jpg|thumb|alt=A group of people wave Japanese flags at a palace.|[[Emperor Akihito]] prepares to greet the flag-waving crowd at the Imperial Palace on his birthday. Photo taken on December 23, 2004.]]
According to polls conduced by mainstream media, most Japanese people had perceived the flag of Japan as the national flag even before the passage of the ''[[Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem (Japan)|Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem]]'' in 1999.<ref name="asahi990718">{{vcite web |url=http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/n-station/research/990717/index.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080523125535/http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/n-station/research/990717/index.html |archivedate=2008-05-23 |title=国旗・国歌法制化について |trans_title=About the Law of the Flag and Anthem |home=Asahi Research |publisher=TV Asahi |language={{ja icon}} |date=1999-07-18 |accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref> Despite this, controversies surrounding the use of the flag in school events or media still remain. For example, liberal newspapers such as ''[[Asahi Shimbun]]'' and ''[[Mainichi Shimbun]]'' often feature articles critical of the flag of Japan, reflecting their readerships' political spectrum.<ref name="hbf-ishikawa">{{vcite web |url=http://www.hbf.or.jp/grants/pdf/j%20i/14-ji-ishikawa.pdf |title=テレビニュースの多様化により、異なる番組の固定視聴者間に生じる意見の差 |trans_title= Diversity of television news, viewers differences of opinion arise between different programs |publisher=Hoso Bunka Foundation |format=PDF |year=2002 |language={{ja icon}}}}</ref>

The display of the ''Hinomaru'' at homes and businesses is also debated in Japanese society. Because of the association of the ''Hinomaru'' with [[uyoku dantai]] (right wing) activists, [[Reactionary|reactionary politics]], or [[hooliganism]], some homes and businesses do not fly the flag.<ref name="defacto"/> To other Japanese, the flag represents the time where democracy was suppressed when [[Empire of Japan|Japan was an empire]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Khan|1998|pp=190.}}</ref>

Negative perceptions of the ''Hinomaru'' exist in former colonies of Japan as well as within Japan itself, such as in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]. In one notable example of this, on October 26, 1987, an Okinawan supermarket owner [[flag burning|burned]] the ''Hinomaru'' before the start of the [[National Sports Festival of Japan]].<ref name="wundunn1995">{{vcite news |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E6D71439F932A25752C1A963958260 |title=Yomitan Journal: A Pacifist Landlord Makes War on Okinawa Bases |work=The New York Times |author=Wundunn, Sheryl |date=1995-11-11 |accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref> The flag burner, Chibana Shôichi, burned the ''Hinomaru'' not only to show opposition to atrocities committed by the Japanese army and the continued presence of U.S. forces, but also to prevent it from being displayed in public.<ref>{{vcite web|author=Smits, Gregory|url=http://www.east-asian-history.net/Ryukyu/History/Okinawa/Postwar/index.htm |title=Okinawa in Postwar Japanese Politics and the Economy |accessdate=2008-10-28 |year=2000 |publisher=Penn State University }}</ref> Other incidents in Okinawa included the flag being torn down during school ceremonies and students refusing to honor the flag as it was being raised to the sounds of ''[[Kimigayo]]''.<ref name="Befu 92–95"/> In the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[South Korea]], both of which had been occupied by the Empire of Japan, the 1999 formal adoption of the ''Hinomaru'' was met with reactions of Japan moving towards the right and also a step towards remilitarization. The passage of the 1999 law also coincided with the debates about the status of Yasukuni, US-Japan military cooperation and the creation of a missile defense. In other nations that Japan occupied, the 1999 law was met with mixed reactions or glossed over. In Singapore, the older generation still harbors ill feelings toward the flag while the younger generation does not hold similar views. The Philippines government not only believed that Japan was not going to revert back to militarism, but the goal of the 1999 law was to formally establish two symbols (the flag and anthem) in law and every state has a right to create national symbols.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Japan's Neo-Nationalism: The Role of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo Legislation|journal=JPRI working paper|date=2001-07|first=Mayumi|last=Itoh|coauthors=|volume=79|issue=|pages=16|id= |url=http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp79.html|accessdate=2010-04-17 }}</ref> Japan has no law criminalizing the burning of the ''Hinomaru'', but foreign flags cannot be burned in Japan.<ref>{{harvnb|Lauterpacht|2002|pp=599.}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Inoguchi, Jain|2000|pp=228.}}</ref>

==Protocol==
[[File:弔旗 (日本).png|thumb|alt=A diagram of a white flag with a black ring. A black ribbon and ball appear above the flag.|Diagram published with ''Regulation 1 from 1912 (Raising Mourning Flag for the Emperor)'']]
According to protocol, the flag may fly from sunrise until sunset; businesses and schools are permitted to fly the flag from opening to closing.<ref name="protocol">{{vcite web |url=http://www.sarago.co.jp/protocol.html |title=Flag Protocol |publisher=Sargo Flag Company |language={{ja icon}} |accessdate=2008-01-15}}</ref> When flying the flags of Japan and another country at the same time, the Japanese flag takes the position of honor and the flag of the guest country flies to its right. Both flags must be at the same height and of equal size. When more than one foreign flag is displayed, Japan's flag is arranged in the alphabetical order prescribed by the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/gaiko/local/database/pdfs/protocol200902.pdf |title=プロトコール |trans_title=Protocol |accessdate=2010-01-13 |date=2009-02 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref> When the flag becomes unsuitable to use, it is customarily burned in private.<ref name="protocol" /> The ''Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem'' does not specify on how the flag should be used, but different prefectures came up with their own regulations to use the ''Hinomaru'' and other prefectural flags.<ref>{{Harvnb|国旗及び国歌の取扱いについて}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|国旗及び県旗の取扱いについて}}</ref>

The ''Hinomaru'' flag has at least two mourning styles. One is to display the flag at {{nihongo|[[half-staff]]|半旗|Han-ki}}, as is common in many countries. The offices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs hoist the flag at half-staff when a funeral is performed for a foreign nation's head of state.<ref name='mofa-half'>{{vcite web|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/Gaiko/local/database/pdfs/protocol4.pdf |title=Page 1 「グローカル通信」平成２１年５月号 プロトコール講座 |trans_title=Protocol Question and Answer (May 2009) |accessdate=2010-01-20 |date=2009-05 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref> An alternative mourning style is to cover the sphere [[finial]] by black cloth and place a black ribbon above the flag, known as a {{nihongo|mourning flag|弔旗|Chō-ki}}. This style dates back to July 30, 1912, when [[Emperor Meiji]] died and the Cabinet issued an ordinance stipulating that the national flag should be raised in mourning when the Emperor dies.<ref>{{Harvnb|大正元年閣令第一号}}</ref> The Cabinet has the authority to announce the half-staffing of the national flag.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/horei_jp/kakugi/txt/txt01421.htm |title=全国戦没者追悼式の実施に関する件 |accessdate=2010-01-26 |date=1963-05-14 |home=Office of the Cabinet |publisher=National Diet Library |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref>

===Public schools===
[[File:Graduation day stage (crop).jpg|thumb|alt=A group of people facing a man and woman on a stage. Two flags are above the stage.|A Hokkaido Prefecture graduation ceremony with both the ''Hinomaru'' and the [[Hokkaido]] Prefecture flags]]

Since the end of World War&nbsp;II, the [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)|Ministry of Education]] has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' at schools under their jurisdiction. The first of these statements was released in 1950, stating that it was desirable, but not required, to use both symbols. This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defense education.<ref name='Goodman'/> In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines, the LDP-controlled government first demanded that the flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to ''Kimigayo''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Trevor|2001|pp=78.}}</ref> Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms.<ref name='Goodman'/>

The 1999 [[curriculum guideline]] issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the ''Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem'' decrees that "on entrance and graduation ceremonies, schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the "[[Kimigayo]]" (national anthem), given the significance of the flag and the song."<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/kyouiku/hotline/02zesei/sankou/kokkikokka.htm |title=学習指導要領における国旗及び国歌の取扱い |trans_title= Handling of the flag and anthem in the National Curriculum |accessdate=2009-12-08 |date=2001-09-11 |publisher=Hiroshima Prefectural Board of Education Secretariat |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref> Additionally, the ministry's commentary on the 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools note that "given the advance of internationalization, along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese, it is important to nurture school children's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and ''Kimigayo'' as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society."<ref name="mext2">{{vcite web |url=http://cebc.jp/data/education/gov/jp/tsuuchi/19990917hatauta/data-02.htm |title=小学校学習指導要領解説社会編，音楽編，特別活動編 |trans_title= National Curriculum Guide: Elementary social notes, Chapter music Chapter Special Activities |publisher=Ministry of Education |language={{ja icon}} |year=1999}}</ref> The ministry also stated that if Japanese students cannot respect their own symbols, then they will not be able to respect the symbols of other nations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aspinall|2001|pp=125.}}</ref>

[[Education in Japan|Schools]] have been the center of controversy over both the anthem and the national flag.<ref name='Wesiman'>{{vcite news |author=Weisman, Steven R. |author.= | title=For Japanese, Flag and Anthem Sometimes Divide | date=1990-04-29 | publisher= | url =http://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/29/world/for-japanese-flag-and-anthem-sometimes-divide.html#end_copy | work =The New York Times | pages = | accessdate = 2010-01-02 | language = }}</ref> The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both the anthem and flag at events under their jurisdiction. The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs.<ref name="guardian060605">{{vcite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/jun/05/worlddispatch.japan |title=A touchy subject |work=Guardian Unlimited |publisher=The Guardian |author=McCurry, Justin |date=2006-06-05 |accessdate=2008-01-14}}</ref> Some have protested that such rules violate the [[Constitution of Japan]], but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies, their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens.<ref name="japantimes"/> As a sign of protest, schools refused to display the ''Hinomaru'' at school graduations and some parents ripped down the flag.<ref name='Wesiman'/> Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against Tokyo Governor [[Shintarō Ishihara]] and senior officials for ordering teachers to honor the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo''.<ref name="ishihara">{{vcite web |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20060105b2.html |title=Ishihara's Hinomaru order called legit |home=The Japan Times |date=2006-01-05 |accessdate=2007-12-04}}</ref> After earlier opposition, the [[Japan Teachers Union]] accepts the use of both the flag and anthem; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system.<ref>{{Harvnb|Heenan|1998|pp=206.}}</ref>

==Related flags==
===Military===
:''For a list of military flags, see [[List of Japanese flags#Military]]. See also [[Rising Sun Flag]].''

The [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]] (JSDF) and the [[Japan Ground Self-Defense Force]] use a version of the sun disc design with eight red rays extending outward, called ''Hachijō-Kyokujitsuki'' (八条旭日旗). A gold border lies partially around the edge.<ref name="law.e-gov">{{harvnb|自衛隊法施行令}}</ref>

A well-known variant of the sun disc design is the sun disc with 16 red rays in a [[Siemens star]] formation, which was also historically used by Japan's military, particularly the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]. The ensign, known in Japanese as the ''Kyokujitsu-ki'' (旭日旗, "Rising Sun Flag"), was first adopted as the naval ensign on October 7, 1889, and was used until the end of [[World War&nbsp;II]] in 1945. It was re-adopted on June 30, 1954, and is now used as the naval ensign of the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force]] (JMSDF).<ref name="law.e-gov"/> In the surrounding Asian countries that were occupied by Japan, this flag still carries a negative connotation.<ref name="xinhua060811">{{vcite news |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/society/2006-08/11/content_4949629.htm |title=赵薇欲代言抗日网游洗刷"军旗装事件"之辱(图) |trans_title= Zhao Wei wishes to endorse the anti-Japanese gaming scrubbing |work=[[Xinhua]] |author=国际, 在线 |date=2006-08-11 |accessdate=2008-01-25 |language=Chinese}}</ref> The JMSDF also employs the use of a [[masthead pennant]]. First adopted in 1914 and readopted in 1965, the masthead pennant contains a simplified version of the naval ensign at the hoist end, with the rest of the pennant colored white. The ratio of the pennant is between 1:40 and 1:90.<ref>{{Harvnb|海上自衛隊旗章規則}}</ref>

The [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force]] (JASDF), established independently in 1952, has only the plain sun disc as its emblem.<ref>{{Harvnb|〇海上自衛隊の使用する航空機の分類等及び塗粧標準等に 関する達}}</ref> This is the only branch of service with an emblem that does not invoke the rayed Imperial Standard. However, the branch does have an [[ensign]] to fly on bases and during parades. The ensign was created in 1972, which was the third used by the JASDF since its creation. The ensign contains the emblem of the branch centered on a blue background.<ref>{{Harvnb|自衛隊の旗に関する訓令}}</ref>

Although not an official national flag, the [[International maritime signal flags|Z signal flag]] played a major role in Japanese naval history. On May 27, 1905, Admiral [[Tōgō Heihachirō|Heihachirō Tōgō]] of the ''[[Japanese battleship Mikasa|Mikasa]]'' was preparing to engage the [[Baltic Fleet|Russian Baltic Fleet]]. Before the [[Battle of Tsushima]] began, Togo raised the [[List of Japanese flags#Military|Z flag]] on the ''Mikasa'' and engaged the Russian fleet, winning the battle for Japan. The raising of the flag said to the crew the following: "The fate of Imperial Japan hangs on this one battle; all hands will exert themselves and do their best." The Z flag was also raised on the aircraft carrier ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|Akagi]]'' on the eve of the Japan's attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]], in December 1941.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|pp=124.}}</ref>

<center>
{{Image gallery |width=130 |lines=2
|Flag of JSDF.svg|A red sun with eight red rays on a white background. On each side of the flag, there are two golden triangles. |Flag of the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|JSDF]] (八条旭日旗)
|Naval Ensign of Japan.svg|A red sun with sixteen red rays on a white background.|[[Rising Sun Flag|Naval Ensign]] (旭日旗)
|Flag of JASDF.png|A golden symbol placed on a blue background. The golden symbol is an eagle perched on a pair of wings.|Flag of the [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force|JASDF]]
|Japan Air Self-Defense Force roundel.svg|A red circle with a white ring.|[[Roundel]] of the JASDF
}}
</div>
</center>

===Imperial===
[[File:Flag of the Japanese Emperor.svg|thumb|alt=A golden flower centered on a red background|The standard of the Japanese emperor]]
:''For a list of imperial flags, see [[List of Japanese flags#Imperial]].''

Starting in 1870, flags were created for the Japanese Emperor (then [[Emperor Meiji]]), the Empress, and for other members of the imperial family.<ref name="Fujitani 1996 48-49">{{Harvnb|Fujitani|1996|pp=48–49.}}</ref> At first, the emperor's flag was ornate, with a sun resting in the center of an artistic pattern. He had flags that were used on land, at sea, and when he was in a carriage. The imperial family was also granted flags to be used at sea and while on land (one for use on foot and one carriage flag). The carriage flags were a monocolored [[chrysanthemum]], with 16 petals, placed in the center of a monocolored background.<ref name="reg651"/> These flags were discarded in 1889 when the Emperor decided to use the chrysanthemum on a red background as his flag. With minor changes in the color shades and proportions, the flags adopted in 1889 are still in use by the imperial family.<ref>{{Harvnb|Matoba|1901|pp=180–181.}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Takahashi|1903|pp=180–181.}}</ref>

The current emperor's flag is a 16-petal chrysanthemum, colored in gold, centered on a red background with a 2:3 ratio. The Empress uses the same flag, except the shape is that of a swallow tail. The crown prince and the crown princess use the same flags, except with a smaller chrysanthemum and a white border in the middle of the flags.<ref name="impja">{{vcite web |url=http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/kenpou/koushitsu/koushitsugiseirei.htm |title=皇室儀制令 |trans_title= Imperial System |language={{ja icon}} |accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref> The chrysanthemum has been associated with the Imperial throne since the rule of [[Emperor Go-Toba]] in the 1100s, but it did not become the exclusive [[Imperial Seal of Japan|symbol of the Imperial throne]] until 1868.<ref name="Fujitani 1996 48-49"/>

===Subnational===
[[File:Japanese flags in Okinawa.jpg|thumb|alt=Three flags fly in the sky.|The Japanese flag flying with the flags of [[Okinawa Prefecture]] and [[Urasoe, Okinawa|Urasoe City]]]]
:''For a list of prefectural flags, see [[List of Japanese flags#Prefectural]].''
:''For a list of municipal flags, see [[List of Japanese municipal flags]].''

Each of [[Prefectures of Japan|Japan's 47 prefectures]] has a flag resembling the national flag insofar as consisting of a symbol, called a ''[[mon (badge)|mon]]'', charged on a monocolored field (with the exception of [[Ehime Prefecture|Ehime]], which uses a symbol on a bicolor background).<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.pref.ehime.jp/shokai/sinboru.html |title=愛媛県のシンボル |trans_title=Symbols of Ehime Prefecture |accessdate=2010-01-03 |date=2009 |publisher=Government of Ehima Prefecture |language={{Ja icon}} |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080109163141/http://www.pref.ehime.jp/shokai/sinboru.html |archivedate=2008-01-09 }}</ref> There are several prefecture flags, such as [[Hiroshima]]'s, that match their specifications to the national flag (2:3 ratio, ''mon'' placed in the center and is 3/5th the length of the flag).<ref>{{Harvnb|広島県県章および県旗の制定}}</ref> Some of the ''mon'' display the name of the prefecture in [[Japanese writing system|Japanese characters]]; others are stylized depictions of the location or another special feature of the prefecture. An example of a prefectural flag is that of [[Nagano]], where the orange ''[[katakana]]'' character ナ (''na'') appears in the center of a white disc. One interpretation of the ''mon'' is that the ''na'' symbol represents a mountain and the white disc, a lake. The orange color represents the sun while the white color represents the snow of the region.<ref name="naganogov">{{vcite web |url=http://www.pref.nagano.jp/soumu/koho/kensho/top.htm |title=長野県の県章&nbsp;– 県旗 |trans_title=Flag and Emblem of Nagano Prefecture |publisher=Government of Nagano Prefecture |language={{ja icon}} |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref>

[[Municipalities of Japan|Municipalities]] can also adopt flags of their own. The designs of the city flags are similar to the prefectural flags: a ''mon'' on a monocolored background. An example is the flag of [[Amakusa, Kumamoto|Amakusa]] in [[Kumamoto Prefecture]]: the city symbol is composed of the [[Katakana]] character ア (''a'') and surrounded by waves.<ref>{{Harvnb|天草市章}}</ref> This symbol is centered on a white flag, with a ratio of 1:1.5.<ref name='amakusaflag'>{{Harvnb|天草市旗}}</ref> Both the city emblem and the flag were adopted in 2006.<ref name='amakusaflag'/>

===Derivatives===
In addition to the flags used by the military, several other flag designs were inspired by the national flag. The former [[Japan Post]] flag consisted of the ''Hinomaru'' with a red horizontal bar placed in the center of the flag. There was also a thin white ring around the red sun. It was later replaced by a flag that consisted of the [[Japan postal mark|〒 postal mark]] in red on a white background.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.japanpost.jp/teipark/display/museum_shozou/museum_shozou_20.html |title=郵便のマーク |accessdate=2010-02-06 |publisher=Communications Museum "Tei Park" |language={{ja icon}} }}</ref>

Two recently designed national flags resemble the Japanese flag. In 1971, [[Bangladesh]] gained independence from [[Pakistan]], and [[Flag of Bangladesh|it adopted a national flag]] that had a green background, charged with an off-centered red disc that contained a golden map of Bangladesh. The current flag, adopted in 1972, dropped the golden map and kept everything else.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gupta|2006|pp=1725.}}</ref> The Government of Bangladesh officially calls the red disc a circle;<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.pmo.gov.bd/pmolib/legalms/pdf/national-flag-rules.pdf |title=People's Republic of Bangladesh Flag Rules (1972) |accessdate=2010-01-13 |date=2005-07 |format=PDF |publisher=Prime Minister's Office, People's Republic of Bangladesh }}</ref> the red color symbolizes the blood that was shed to create their country.<ref name='bdembassy'>{{vcite web|url=http://www.bangladeshembassy.nl/page.php?page_id=3 |title=Facts and Figures |accessdate=2010-01-13 |publisher=Embassy of Bangladesh in the Netherlands }}</ref> The island nation of [[Palau]] uses a flag of similar design, but the color scheme is completely different. While the Government of Palau does not cite the Japanese flag as an influence on their national flag, Japan did administer Palau from 1914 until 1944.<ref>{{vcite journal|title=The International Political Economy of Pacific Islands Flags of Convenience|journal=Australia-Asia|date=|author=Van Fossen, Anthony B.; Centre for the Study of Australia-Asia Relations, Faculty of Asian and International Studies, Griffith University|volume=66|issue=69|page=53|id= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jWYTAAAAYAAJ&q=Palau+flag&dq=Palau+flag&client=firefox-a&cd=3|format=|accessdate=2009-12-30 }}</ref> The [[flag of Palau]] is an off-centered golden-yellow [[full moon]] on a sky blue background.<ref>{{vcite web|url=http://www.palaugov.net/PalauGov/AboutPalau/Flag.htm |title=Palau Flag |accessdate=2010-01-13 |date=2008-07-18 |publisher=Republic of Palau National Government }}</ref> The moon stands for peace and a young nation while the blue background represents Palau's transition to self government from 1981 to 1994, when it achieved full independence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|2001|pp=73.}}</ref>

The Japanese naval ensign also influenced other flag designs. One such flag design is used by the ''[[Asahi Shimbun]]''. At the bottom hoist of the flag, one quarter of the sun is displayed. The [[kanji]] character [[:wiktionary:朝|朝]] is displayed on the flag, colored white, covering most of the sun. The rays extend from the sun, occurring in a red and white alternating order, culminating in 13 total stripes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saito|1987|pp=53.}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Tazagi|2004|pp=11.}}</ref> The flag is commonly seen at the [[Japanese High School Baseball Championship|National High School Baseball Championship]], as the ''Asahi Shimbun'' is a main sponsor of the tournament.<ref>{{harvnb|Mangan|2000|pp=213.}}</ref> The rank flags and ensigns of the Imperial Japanese Navy also based their designs off of the naval ensign.<ref>{{harvnb|Gordon|1915|pp=217–218.}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Japanese flags]]
* [[Nobori]]
* [[Sashimono]]
* [[Uma-jirushi]]

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
;Bibliography<!-- These are organized by author's last name. -->
{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
* {{vcite book|author=Ashkenazi, Michael|title=Handbook of Japanese Mythology|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gqs-y9R2AekC&pg=PA112&dq=sun+japan+amaterasu&lr=&client=firefox-a&cd=2#v=onepage&q=sun%20japan%20amaterasu&f=false|isbn=1-57607-467-6|ref={{harvid| Ashkenazi|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Aspinall, Robert W|title=Teachers' Unions and the Politics of Education in Japan|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=2001|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zsdFCz-Il3EC&pg=PA125&dq=Japanese+flag+respect+foreign&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=16#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20flag%20respect%20foreign&f=false|isbn=0-7914-5050-3|ref={{harvid|Aspinall|2001}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Befu, Harumi|editor=Goodman, Roger and Kirsten Refsing|chapter= Symbols of nationalism and ''Nihonjinron'' |title=Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan|publisher=Routledge|year= 1992|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=26g06eUKXCAC&pg=PT46&dq=japan+flag&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=6#v=onepage&q=japan%20flag&f=false|isbn=0-415-06102-4|ref={{Harvid|Befu|1992}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Befu, Harumi|title=Hegemony of Homogeneity: An Anthropological Analysis of Nihonjinron|publisher=Trans Pacific Press|year=2001|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=91s4n07d4p4C&pg=PA92&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=18#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20flag%20homes&f=false|isbn=9781876843052|ref={{Harvid|Befu|2001}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Borneman, John|title=Death of the Father: An Anthropology of the End in Political Authority|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2003–11|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5tRkseowkKkC&pg=PA112&dq=japan+flag+hirohito&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=7#v=onepage&q=japan%20flag%20hirohito&f=false|isbn=1571811117|ref={{harvid|Borneman|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Breen, John|title=Yasukuni, the War Dead and the Struggle for Japan's Past|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2008|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rBh5kkvh16UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Yasukuni&client=firefox-a&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=978-0-231-70042-9|ref={{harvid|Breen|2008}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Carpenter, Ronald H|year=2004|title=Rhetoric In Martial Deliberations And Decision Making: Cases And Consequences|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9P6OfUw822oC&pg=PA124&dq=Akagi+flag&lr=&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=Akagi%20flag&f=false|isbn=978-1570035555|ref={{harvid|Carpenter|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Carr, Harold Gresham; [[Frederick Edward Hulme]]|title=Flags of the world|publisher=Warne|year=1956|location=London; New York|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=P58KAQAAIAAJ&q=1945+flag+SCAJAP&dq=1945+flag+SCAJAP&lr=&client=firefox-a&cd=3|ref={{Harvid|Carr, Hulme|1956}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Cutler, Thomas|year=2001|title=The Battle of Leyte Gulf: 23–26 October 1944|publisher=Naval Institute Press|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AF6KtkIAy5cC&pg=PA271&dq=hachimaki+kamikaze&lr=&as_brr=3&cd=12#v=onepage&q=hachimaki%20kamikaze&f=false|isbn=1557502439|ref={{harvid|Cutler|2001}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Cwiertka, Katarzyna Joanna|title=Modern Japanese Cuisine: Food, Power and National Identity|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2007|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oK-7LOlWNpEC&pg=PA117&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=26#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=1861892985|ref={{harvid|Cwiertka|2007}}}}
* {{vcite book|title=Japan in World Politics: A Study in International Dynamics |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oXxCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA24&dq=japan+rising+sun+607 |author=Dyer, Henry|year=1909|publisher=Blackie & Son Limited|ref={{harvid|Dyer|1990}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Edgington, David William|title=Japan at the Millennium: Joining Past and Future |publisher=UCB Press|year=2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=El9Lj_EKzBAC&pg=PA124&dq=rising+sun+Japan+flag&lr=&sig=GzyG_wTrJl8mm3FCgR4sxl6DBt8|isbn=0774808993|ref={{harvid|Edgington|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Anne Walthall; James Palais|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing|year=2004|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XtmzFZS_SX0C&pg=PA443&dq=japanese+flag+loyalty+emperor&lr=&as_brr=0&client=firefox-a&cd=14#v=onepage&q=japanese%20flag%20loyalty%20emperor&f=false|isbn=0-547-00534-2|ref={{harvid|Ebrey|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Feiler, Bruce|title=Learning to Bow: Inside the Heart of Japan|publisher=Harper Perennial|year=2004|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Nu5WcLQfS7QC&pg=PA214&dq=flag+japan+emperor&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=25#v=onepage&q=flag%20japan%20emperor&f=false|isbn=0060577207|ref={{Harvid|Feiler|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Feldman, David |title=Do Elephants Jump?|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2004|isbn=0060539135|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gUHw7HKfYPgC&pg=PA151&dq=flag+burning+Japan&as_brr=3&cd=7#v=onepage&q=flag%20burning%20Japan&f=false|ref={{harvid|Feldman|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Fujitani, Takashi|year=1996|title=Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan|publisher=University of California Press|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rX8HlYCd7_gC&pg=PA48&dq=chrysanthemum+flag&cd=8#v=onepage&q=chrysanthemum%20flag&f=false|isbn=978-0520213715|ref={{harvid|Fujitani|1996}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Goodman, Roger; Ian Neary|title=Case Studies on Human Rights in Japan|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=73sE6NkXPbAC&pg=PA81&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=82#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=978-1-873410-35-6|ref={{harvid|Goodman, Neary|1996}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Gordon, William|year=1915|title=Flags of the World, Past and Present|publisher=Frederick Warne & Co.|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=voUBuwLj0l4C&pg=PA110&dq=Witu+flag+Gordon&as_brr=4&client=firefox-a&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false|ref={{harvid|Gordon|1915}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Gupta, Om|year=2006|title=Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh|publisher=Isha Books|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VY1nTMBQ9vQC&pg=PA1725&dq=Bangladesh+flag+Japan&lr=&client=firefox-a&cd=3#v=onepage&q=Bangladesh%20flag%20Japan&f=false|isbn=978-8182053892|ref={{harvid|Gupta|2006}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Hall, James|title=Illustrated Dictionary of Symbols in Eastern and Western Art|publisher=Westview Press|year=1996|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO-cuysr83MC&pg=PA110&dq=sun+symbol+japan&lr=&client=firefox-a&cd=18#v=onepage&q=sun%20symbol%20japan&f=false|isbn=0064309827|ref={{harvid|Hall|1996}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Heenan, Patrick|title=The Japan Handbook|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qNawsKPltbwC&pg=PA206&dq=Japan+flag+schools&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=7#v=onepage&q=Japan%20flag%20schools&f=false|isbn=1579580556|ref={{harvid|Heenan|1998}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Holden, Edward Singleton|title=Our country's flag and the flags of foreign countries|publisher=D. Appleton and Company|year=1916|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kb5HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA154&dq=Japanese+flag+foreign&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=2#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20flag%20foreign&f=false|ref={{harvid|Holden|1916}}}}
* {{vcite book |author=Inoguchi, Takashi; Purnendra Jain|title=Japanese Foreign Policy Today|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Ltd|year=2000|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ciH7OSSZ95YC&pg=PA228&dq=Japanese+flag+foreign&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=9#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20flag%20foreign&f=false|isbn=0-312-22707-8|ref={{Harvid|Inoguchi, Jain|2000}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Itoh, Mayumi|year=2003|title=The Hatoyama Dynasty: Japanese Political Leadership Through the Generations|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=1-4039-6331-2|ref={{harvid|Itoh|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Kataoka, Tetsuya|title=Creating Single-Party Democracy: Japan's Postwar Political System|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1991|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FtBmAAAAMAAJ&q=hinomaru+funeral&dq=hinomaru+funeral&cd=7|isbn=0817991115|ref={{harvid|Kataoka|1991}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Khan, Yoshimitsu|title=Japanese Moral Education: Past and Present|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|year=1998|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pKmt85w7atsC&pg=PA190&dq=Japan+flag+loyalty&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=31#v=onepage&q=Japan%20flag%20loyalty&f=false|isbn=0838636934|ref={{harvid|Khan|1998}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Large, Stephen|title=Emperor Hirohito and Showa Japan: A Political Biography|publisher=Routledge|year=1992|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2IkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA184&dq=japan+flag+hirohito&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=2#v=onepage&q=japan%20flag%20hirohito&f=false|isbn=0415032032|ref={{harvid|Large|1992}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Lauterpacht, Elihu|editor=C. J. Greenwood and A. G. Oppenheimer|title=International Law Reports
|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZFeCQQ0siS8C&pg=PA599&dq=flag+burning+Norway+Japan&lr=&as_brr=3&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=9780521807753|ref={{harvid|Lauterpacht|2002}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Li, Peter|title=The Search for Justice|publisher=Transaction Books|year=2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wdy6adh3rXQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Japan+war+crimes&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=2#v=onepage&q=Japan%20war%20crimes&f=false|isbn=978-0-7658-0890-5|ref={{harvid|Li|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Mangan, J.A.; Finn, Gerry; Giulianotti, Richard and Majumdar, Boria|title=Football Culture Local Conflicts, Global Visions|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Vg-WWyxRxn0C&pg=PA213&dq=Asahi+Shinbun+baseball&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=18#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=978-0-7146-5041-8|ref={{harvid|Mangan|2000}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Matoba, Seinosuke|year=1901|language={{ja icon}}|title=陸軍と海軍|trans_title=Army and Navy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WTQuAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT76&dq=%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87%E6%97%97&lr=&as_brr=3&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87%E6%97%97&f=false|ref={{harvid|Matoba|1901}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Meyer, Milton|title=Japan: A Concise History|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group|year=2009|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ccnWvoK2AIQC&pg=PA266&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=83#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=0742541177|ref{{harvid|Meyer|2009}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Newell, William|title=Japan in Asia: 1942–1945|publisher=Singapore University Press|year=1982|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JlaPq_C2l6EC&pg=PA28&dq=Japan+flag+homes+emperor&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=20#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=9971690144|ref={{harvid|Newell|1982}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Nornes, Abe Mark|title=Japanese Documentary Film The Meiji Era through Hiroshima|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=11D14NIwKaYC&pg=PA81&dq=European+flags+Japan&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=70#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=0-8166-4046-7|ref={{Harvid|Nornes|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko|title=Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2002|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K62e5Mk3Kd8C&pg=PA68&dq=flag+japan+emperor&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=27#v=onepage&q=flag%20japan%20emperor&f=false|isbn=9780226620916|ref={{Harvid| Ohnuki-Tierney|2002}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Partner, Simon|title=Toshié A Story of Village Life in Twentieth-Century Japan|publisher=University of California Press|year=2004|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SciqAStNYLYC&pg=PA55&dq=hinomaru+homes+war&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=25#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=9780520240971|ref={{Harvid|Partner|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Röhl, Wilhelm|title=History of law in Japan since 1868, Part 5, Volume 12|publisher=Brill|year=2005|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=47yhjgB-XhgC&pg=PT28&dq=1885+Japan+laws+cabinet&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=978 90 04 13164 4|ref={{Harvid|Rohl|2005}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Saito, Shinya|year=1987|language={{ja icon}}|title=記者四十年|trans_title=Fourteen Years As A Reporter|publisher=Asahi Shimbun Publishing|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vvIuAAAAMAAJ&q=%E6%9C%9D%E6%97%A5%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E3%80%80%E7%A4%BE%E6%97%97&dq=%E6%9C%9D%E6%97%A5%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E3%80%80%E7%A4%BE%E6%97%97&lr=&client=firefox-a&cd=36|isbn=978-4-02-260421-7|ref={{harvid|Saito|1987}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Smith, Whitney|title=Flags Through the Ages and Across the World|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1976|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O3UYAAAAIAAJ&q=European+flags+Japan&dq=European+flags+Japan&client=firefox-a&cd=2 |isbn=0070590931|ref={{harvid|Smith|1976}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=[[Whitney Smith|Smith, Whitney]]|year=2001|title=Flag Lore Of All Nations|publisher=Millbrook Press|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EFhAUbH6ra0C&pg=PA73&dq=Palau+flag&client=firefox-a&cd=7#v=onepage&q=Palau%20flag&f=false|isbn=0761317538|ref={{harvid|Smith|2001}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Takahashi, Yuuichi|year=1903|title=海軍問答|trans_title=Navy Dialogue|language={{ja icon}}|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=unkuAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT7&dq=%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87%E6%97%97&lr=&as_brr=3&cd=3#v=onepage&q=%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87%E6%97%97&f=false|ref={{harvid|Takahashi|1903}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Takenaka, Yoshiharu|year=2003|title=知っておきたい国旗・旗の基礎知識|trans_title=Flag basics you should know|language={{ja icon}}|publisher=Gifu Shimbun|isbn=4-87797-054-1|ref={{harvid|Takenaka|2003}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Taylor, Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2004|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OMnt1iIEzdAC&pg=PA321&dq=Indonesian+flag+Japan&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Indonesian%20flag%20Japan&f=false|isbn=0300105185|ref={{harvid|Taylor|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Tazagi, Shirou|year=2004|title=梶山静六: 死に顔に笑みをたたえて|trans_title=Seiroku Kajiyama: Praising the smile in the dying face|language={{ja icon}}|publisher=Kodansha|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mF66AAAAIAAJ&q=%E6%9C%9D%E6%97%A5%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E3%80%80%E7%A4%BE%E6%97%97&dq=%E6%9C%9D%E6%97%A5%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E3%80%80%E7%A4%BE%E6%97%97&lr=&client=firefox-a&cd=66|isbn=4062125927|ref={{harvid|Tazagi|2004}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Tipton, Elise|title=Modern Japan A Social and Political History|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jdGG3U3KhnEC&pg=PA137&dq=Japanese+flag+homes&lr=&as_brr=0&client=firefox-a&cd=108#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=978-0-415-18538-7|ref={{harvid|Tpton|2002}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Trevor, Malcolm|title=Japan&nbsp;– Restless Competitor The Pursuit of Economic Nationalism|publisher=Routledge|year=2001|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PrAoHzoP1QkC&pg=PA78&dq=flag+japan+emperor&lr=&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=16#v=onepage&q=flag%20japan%20emperor&f=false|isbn=978-1-903350-02-7|ref={{harvid|Trevor|2001}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Turnbull, Stephen; Howard Gerrard|title=Ashigaru 1467–1649 |publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2001|isbn=1841761494|ref={{harvid|Turnball|2001}}}}
* {{vcite book|author=Yamazumi, Masami|title=日の丸・君が代問題とは何か|language={{ja icon}}|publisher=Otsuki Shoten|year=1988|isbn=4272410326|ref={{harvid|Yamazumi|1988}}}}
{{refend}}
;Legislation<!-- These are organized by the year of adoption. -->
{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
* {{vcite web|title=明治3年太政官布告第57号 |trans_title=Prime Minister's Proclamation No.&nbsp;57|url=http://www.pref.nara.jp/somu-so/jourei/reiki_honbun/k4010086001.html|accessdate=2010-02-06|date=1870-02-27|publisher=Government of Nara Prefecture|language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|明治3年太政官布告第57号}}}}
* {{vcite web|title=明治3年太政官布告第651号 |trans_title=Prime Minister's Proclamation No.&nbsp;651|url=http://kindai.ndl.go.jp/BIImgFrame.php?JP_NUM=40022968&VOL_NUM=00005&KOMA=220&ITYPE=0|accessdate=2010-02-06|date=1870-10-03|publisher=National Diet Library|format=PDF|language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|明治3年太政官布告第651号}}}}
* {{vcite web|title=大正元年閣令第一号　（大喪中ノ国旗掲揚方） |trans_title=Regulation 1 from 1912 (Raising Mourning Flag For the Emperor)|url=http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/T01/T01F01801000001.html|accessdate=2010-02-06|date=1912-07-30|publisher=Government of Japan|language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|大正元年閣令第一号}}}}
* {{vcite web |url=http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S29/S29SE179.html |title=自衛隊法施行令 |trans_title= Self-Defense Forces Law Enforcement Order |publisher=Government of Japan |language={{ja icon}} |date=1954-06-30 |accessdate=2008-01-25|ref={{harvid|自衛隊法施行令}}}}
* {{vcite web|url=http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/e_fd/1962/ey19621224_00119_000.pdf |title=〇海上自衛隊の使用する航空機の分類等及び塗粧標準等に 関する達 |trans_title= Standard Sizes, Markings and Paint Used On Aircraft|accessdate=2009-12-15 |date=1962-12-24 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|〇海上自衛隊の使用する航空機の分類等及び塗粧標準等に 関する達}}}}
* {{vcite web|title=広島県県章および県旗の制定 |trans_title=Law About the Flag and Emblem of Hiroshima Prefecture|url=http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/soumu/bunsyo/kenhouki/reiki_honbun/ar20000231.html|accessdate=2010-02-06|date=1968-07-16|publisher=Government of Hiroshima Prefecture|language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|広島県県章および県旗の制定}}}}
* {{vcite web|title=国旗及び国歌に関する法律 (法律第百二十七号) |trans_title=Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem, Act No.&nbsp;127|url=http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/H11/H11HO127.html|accessdate=2010-02-06|date=1999-08-13|publisher=Government of Japan|language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|国旗及び国歌に関する法律}}}}
* {{vcite web|url=http://www.police.pref.hokkaido.jp/koukai/tuutatu/keimu/keimu-105.html |title=国旗及び国歌の取扱いについて |trans_title=Law Regarding Use of the National Flag and Anthem |accessdate=2010-01-14 |date=1999-11-18 |publisher=Police of the Hokkaido Prefecture |language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|国旗及び国歌の取扱いについて}} }}
* {{vcite web|url=http://www.police.pref.kanagawa.jp/notice/01032901.pdf |title=国旗及び県旗の取扱いについて |trans_title=Law Regarding the Use of the National and Prefectural Flag |accessdate=2010-01-14 |date=2003-03-29 |format=PDF |publisher=Police of Kanagawa Prefecture |language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|国旗及び県旗の取扱いについて}} }}
* {{vcite web|title=天草市章 |trans_title=Emblem of Amakusa|url=http://www.city.amakusa.kumamoto.jp/reiki/reiki_honbun/r3510002001.html|accessdate=2010-02-06|date=2003-03-27|publisher=Government of Amakusa City|language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|天草市章}}}}
* {{vcite web|title=天草市旗 |trans_title=Flag of Amakusa|url=http://www.city.amakusa.kumamoto.jp/reiki/reiki_honbun/r3510003001.html|accessdate=2010-02-06|date=2003-03-27|publisher=Government of Amakusa City|language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|天草市旗}}}}
* {{vcite web|url=http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/a_fd/1971/ax19720314_00003_000.pdf |title=自衛隊の旗に関する訓令 |trans_title= Flag Rules of the JASDF |accessdate=2009-09-25 |date=2008-03-25 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|自衛隊の旗に関する訓令}}}}
* {{vcite web|url=http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/a_fd/1955/ax19551227_00044_000.pdf |title=海上自衛隊旗章規則 |trans_title=JMSDF Flag and Emblem Rules |accessdate=2009-09-25 |date=2008-03-25 |format=PDF |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language={{ja icon}}|ref={{harvid|海上自衛隊旗章規則}}}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Flags of Japan}}
* [http://www.sarago.co.jp/protocol.html Flag protocol] {{ja icon}}
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/kenpou/koushitsu/koushitsugiseirei.htm Website on the standards of the Imperial family] {{ja icon}}
* {{FOTW|id=jp|title=Japan}}
{{Asia topic|Flag of|title=[[Flags of Asia]]}}
{{nationalflags}}
{{featured article}}
-->


[[Categoría:Banderas nacionales|Japon]]
[[Categoría:Banderas nacionales|Japon]]

Revisión del 07:17 9 may 2010

Un wikipedista está trabajando actualmente en este artículo o sección. Es posible que a causa de ello haya lagunas de contenido o deficiencias de formato.
Si quieres, puedes ayudar y editar, pero antes de realizar correcciones mayores contáctalo en su página de discusión o en la del artículo para poder coordinar la redacción.
Uso de esta plantilla: {{En desarrollo|nombre de usuario|t={{sust:CURRENTTIMESTAMP}}}} o {{sust:En desarrollo}}
Ratio: 2:3

La bandera de Japón, conocida como Nisshōki (日章旗?) o Hinomaru (日の丸?) traducido como "el disco solar" en japonés, consiste en un fondo blanco con un gran disco rojo (representando al sol) en el centro. Sus proporciones son de 2:3; el disco se sitúa exactamente en el centro y el diámetro del mismo es igual a tres quintas partes de la medida vertical.

No se conoce cuándo comenzó a utilizarse como símbolo pero han quedado recogidos discos solares en abanicos plegables llamados guisen que datan del siglo XII y fueron dibujados por guerreros samurái (bushi). Durante los siglos XV y XVI, en la Era Sengoku, el Hinomaru fue usado como insignia militar. El círculo rojo sobre el fondo blanco era el más común, pero también se empleó un círculo dorado sobre un fondo de color azul oscuro.

Ha quedado documentado el empleo del Hinomaru como símbolo en el siglo XVI. También comenzó a ser utilizado en los barcos enviados al extranjero por lo menos desde el siglo XVII. Pero hasta 1854 no se reguló expresamente el uso del Hinomaru en las naves japonesas para que no fuesen confundidas con embarcaciones extranjeras.

El 27 de enero de 1870, durante la Era Meiji, el Hinomaru fue oficialmente declarado en un decreto la bandera de Japón para la marina mercante.

El Hinomaru comenzó a ser izado en edificios gubernamentales en 1872 y poco después comenzó a ser utilizado por la población como símbolo nacional.

Durante la ocupación norteamericana tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial el uso del Hinomaru fue restringido. Sólo en 1999 fue oficialmente adoptada como símbolo nacional en la Ley Acerca de la Bandera y el Himno Nacional.

Otras banderas

), and as the national flag used by Navy under Proclamation No. 651 of Meiji 3 (issued on October 27, 1870). Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the early years of the American occupation after World War II, although restrictions were later relaxed.

In early Japanese history, the Hinomaru motif was used on flags of daimyos and samurai. During the Meiji Restoration, both the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy became major symbols in the emerging Japanese empire. Propaganda posters, textbooks, and films depicted the flag as a source of pride and patriotism. In Japanese homes, citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays, celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government. Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular during the Second Sino-Japanese War and other conflicts. These tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag.

Public perception of the national flag varies. To some Japanese, the flag represents Japan, and no other flag could take its place. However, the flag is not frequently displayed due to its association with extreme nationalism. The use of the flag and the national anthem Kimigayo have been a contentious issue for Japan's public schools since the end of World War II. Disputes about their use have led to protests, lawsuits, and at least one suicide in Hiroshima Prefecture. To Okinawans, the flag represents the events of World War II and the subsequent U.S. military presence there. For some nations occupied by Japan, the flag is a symbol of aggression and imperialism. The Hinomaru was used as a tool against occupied nations for purposes of intimidation or subjugation. Despite the negative connotations, Western and Japanese sources claim the flag is a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese. Several military banners of Japan are based on the Hinomaru, including the sunrayed Naval Ensign. The Hinomaru also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public and private use.

History

Plantilla:FixBunching

A family gathers around a young boy in a military uniform, surrounded by banners and flags. Some of the children also hold flags.
1930s photo of a military enrollment. The Hinomaru is displayed on the house and held by several children.

Plantilla:FixBunching

For a list of historical flags, see List of Japanese flags#Historical.

Before 1900

The exact origin of the Hinomaru is unknown,[1]​ but the rising sun seems to have had some symbolic meaning since the early 7th century. In 607, an official correspondence that began with "from the emperor of the rising sun" was sent to Emperor Yang of Sui.[2]​ Japan is often referred to as "the land of the rising sun".[3]​ In the 12th-century work, The Tale of the Heike, it was written that different samurai carried drawings of the sun on their fans.[4]​ Another possible reason for the use of the sun was that the Japanese warrior wanted simple and elegant designs to reflect the well mannered and cultured status of the samurai.[5]​ One legend related to the national flag is attributed to the Buddhist priest Nichiren. Supposedly, during a 13th-century Mongolian invasion of Japan, Nichiren gave a sun banner to the shogun to carry into battle.[6]​ The sun is also closely related to the Imperial family as legend states the imperial throne was descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu.[7]​[8]​

One of Japan's oldest flags is housed at the Unpo-ji temple in Yamanashi Prefecture. Legend states it was given by Emperor Reizei to Minamoto no Yoshimitsu and has been treated as a family treasure by the Takeda clan for the past 1000 years, but the historical accuracy of this account is questionable.[9]​

The earliest recorded flags in Japan date from the unification period in the late 16th century. The flags belonged to each Daimyo and were used primarily in battle. Most of the flags were long banners usually charged with the mon (family crest) of the Daimyo lord. Members of the same family, such as a son, father, and brother, had different flags to carry into battle. The flags served as identification, and were displayed by soldiers on their backs and horses. Generals also had their own flags, most of which differed from soldiers' flags due to their square shape.[10]​

In 1854, during the Tokugawa shogunate, Japanese ships were ordered to hoist the Hinomaru to distinguish themselves from foreign ships.[4]​ Before then, different types of Hinomaru flags were used on vessels that were trading with the Americans and Russians.[1]​ The Hinomaru was decreed the merchant flag of Japan in 1870 and was the legal national flag from 1870 to 1885, making it the first national flag Japan adopted.[11]​[12]​

While the idea of national symbols was strange to the Japanese, the Meiji Government needed them to communicate with the outside world. This became especially important after the landing of U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry in Yokohama Bay.[13]​ Further Meiji Government implementations gave more identifications Japan, including the anthem Kimigayo and the imperial seal.[14]​ In 1885, all previous laws not published in the Official Gazette of Japan were abolished.[15]​ Because of this ruling by the new cabinet of Japan, the Hinomaru was the de facto national flag since no law was in place after the Meiji Restoration.[16]​

Early conflicts and the Pacific War

Three children holding flags in front of a building and a rising sun
Propaganda poster promoting harmony among Japanese, Chinese, and Manchu. The caption reads "With the cooperation of Japan, China, and Manchukuo, the world can be in peace."

The use of the national flag grew as Japan developed into an empire, and the Hinomaru was present at celebrations after victories in the First Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. The flag was also used in war efforts throughout the country.[17]​ A Japanese propaganda film in 1934 portrayed foreign national flags as incomplete or defective with their designs, while the Japanese flag is perfect in all forms.[18]​ In 1937, a group of girls from Hiroshima Prefecture showed solidarity with Japanese soldiers fighting in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War, by eating "flag meals" that consisted of an umeboshi in the middle of a bed of rice. The Hinomaru bento became the main symbol of Japan's war mobilization and solidarity with her soldiers until the 1940s.[19]​

Japan's early victories in the Sino-Japanese War resulted in the Hinomaru again being used for celebrations. It was seen in the hands of every Japanese during parades.[17]​

Textbooks during this period also had the Hinomaru printed with various slogans expressing devotion to the Emperor and the country. Patriotism was taught as a virtue to Japanese children. Expressions of patriotism, such as displaying the flag or worshiping the Emperor daily, were all part of being a "good Japanese."[20]​

The flag was a tool of Japanese imperialism in the occupied Southeast Asian areas during World War II: people had to use the flag,[21]​ and schoolchildren sang Kimigayo in morning flag raising ceremonies.[22]​ Local flags were allowed for some areas such as the Philippines, Indonesia, and Manchukuo.[23]​ [24]​ [25]​ In certain colonies such as Korea, the Hinomaru and other symbols were used to relegate the Koreans to second-class status in the empire.[26]​

To the Japanese, the Hinomaru was the "Rising Sun flag that would light the darkness of the entire world."[27]​ To Westerners, it was one of the Japanese military's most powerful symbols.[28]​

U.S. occupation

Men in military dress watch a flag being lowered.
The Hinomaru is lowered in Seoul, Korea, on September 9, 1945, the day of the surrender.

The Hinomaru was the de facto flag throughout World War II and the occupation period.[16]​ During the occupation of Japan after World War II, permission from the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAPJ) was needed to fly the Hinomaru.[29]​[30]​ Sources differ on the degree to which the use of the Hinomaru flag was restricted; some use the term "banned;"[31]​[32]​ however, while the original restrictions were severe, they did not amount to an outright ban.[16]​

After World War II, an ensign was used by Japanese civil ships of the United States Naval Shipping Control Authority for Japanese Merchant Marines.[33]​ Modified from the "E" signal code, the ensign was used from September 1945 until the U.S. occupation of Japan ceased.[34]​ U.S. ships operating in Japanese waters used a modified "O" signal flag as their ensign.[35]​

On May 2, 1947, General Douglas MacArthur lifted the restrictions on displaying the Hinomaru in the grounds of the National Diet Building, on the Imperial Palace, on the Prime Minister's residence and on the Supreme Court building with the ratification of the new Constitution of Japan.[36]​[37]​ Those restrictions were further relaxed in 1948, when people were allowed to fly the flag on national holidays. In January 1949, the restrictions were abolished and anyone could fly the Hinomaru at any time without permission. As a result, schools and homes were encouraged to fly the Hinomaru until the early 1950s.[29]​

Postwar to 1999

A group of men and women watching a flag being raised.
The Hinomaru being raised at the United Nations headquarters in New York City in 1956

Since World War II, Japan's flag has been criticized for its association with the country's militaristic past. Similar objections have also been raised to the current national anthem of Japan, Kimigayo.[9]​ The feelings about the Hinomaru and Kimigayo represented a general shift from a patriotic feeling about "Dai Nippon" – Great Japan – to the pacifist and anti-militarist "Nihon". Because of this ideological shift, the flag was used less often in Japan directly after the war even though restrictions were lifted by the SCAPJ in 1949.[30]​[38]​

As Japan began to re-establish itself diplomatically, the Hinomaru was used as a political weapon overseas. In a visit by the Emperor Hirohito and the Empress Kōjun to the Netherlands, the Hinomaru was burned by Dutch citizens who demanded that either he be sent home to Japan or tried for the deaths of Dutch prisoners of war during the Second World War.[39]​ Domestically, the Hinomaru was not even used in protests against a new Status of Forces Agreement being negotiated between U.S. and Japan. The most common flag used by the trade unions and other protesters was the red flag of revolt.[40]​

An issue with the Hinomaru and national anthem was raised once again when Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympic Games. Before the Olympic Games, the size of the sun disc of the national flag was changed partly because the sun disc was not considered striking when it was being flown with other national flags.[30]​ Tadamasa Fukiura, a color specialist, chose to set the sun disc at two thirds of the flag's length. Fukiura also chose the flag colors for the 1964 as well as the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano.[41]​

In 1989, the death of Emperor Hirohito once again raised moral issues about the national flag. Conservatives felt that if the flag could be used during the ceremonies without reopening old wounds, they may have a chance to propose the Hinomaru become the national flag without being challenged about its meaning.[42]​ During an official six day mourning period, flags were flown at half staff or draped in black bunting all across Japan.[43]​ Despite reports of protesters vandalizing the Hinomaru on the day of the Emperor's funeral,[44]​ schools' right to fly the Hinomaru at half-staff without reservations brought success to the conservatives.[42]​

Since 1999

A page with Asian characters and a black-and-white version of the Japanese flag left above
The Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem as it appears in the Official Gazette on August 15, 1999

The Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem was passed in 1999, choosing both the Hinomaru and Kimigayo as Japan's national symbols. The passage of the law stemmed from a suicide of a school principal in Hiroshima who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo.[45]​

Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) decided to draft legislation to make the Hinomaru and Kimigayo official symbols of Japan in 2000. His Chief Cabinet Secretary, Hiromu Nonaka, wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of the coronation of Akihito as Emperor.

Main supporters of the bill were the LDP and the Komeito (CGP), while the opposition included the Social Democratic Party (SDPJ) and Communist Party (CPJ), who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era. The CPJ was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public. Meanwhile, the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) could not develop party consensus on it. President of the DPJ, Naoto Kan stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan.[46]​ Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister Yukio Hatoyama thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools.[47]​

The House of Representatives passed the bill on July 22, 1999, by a 403 to 86 vote.[48]​ The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on July 28 and was passed on August 9. It was enacted into law on August 13.[49]​ Attempts to designate only the Hinomaru as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet.[50]​

On August 8, 2009, a photograph was taken at a DPJ rally for the House of Representatives election showing a banner that was hanging from a ceiling. The banner was made of two Hinomaru flags cut and sewn together to form the shape of the DPJ logo. This infuriated the LDP and Prime Minister Taro Aso, saying this act was unforgivable. In response, DPJ President Yukio Hatoyama (who voted for the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem)[47]​ said that the banner was not the Hinomaru and should not be regarded as such.[51]​

Design

The flag has a ratio of two by three. The diameter of the sun is three-fifths of the length of the flag. The sun is placed directly in the center.
Construction sheet

Passed in 1870, the Prime Minister's Proclamation No. 57 had two provisions related to the national flag. The first provision specified who flew the flag and how it was flown; the second specified how the flag was made.[1]​ The ratio was seven units length and ten units width (7:10). The red disc, which represents the sun, was calculated to be three-fifths of the total size of the hoist length. The law decreed the disc to be in the center, but it was usually placed one-hundredths (1/100) towards the hoist.[52]​[53]​ In October 3 of the same year, regulations about the design of the merchant ensign and other naval flags were passed.[54]​ For the merchant flag, the ratio was two units length and three units width (2:3). The size of the disc remained the same, however the sun disc was placed one-twentieth (1/20) towards the hoist.[55]​

When the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem passed, the dimensions of the flag were slightly altered.[56]​ The overall ratio of the flag was changed to two units length by three units width (2:3). The red disc was shifted towards dead center, but the overall size of the disc stayed the same.[57]​ The background of the flag is white and the sun disc is red　(紅色 (beni iro?)), but the exact color shades were not defined in the 1999 law.[56]​ The only hint given about the red color that it is a "deep" shade.[58]​

Issued by the Japan Defense Agency (now the Ministry of Defense) in 1973 (Showa 48), specifications list the red color of the flag as 5R 4/12 and the white as N9 in the Munsell color chart.[59]​ The document was changed on March 21, 2008 (Heisei 20) to match the flag's construction with current legislation and updated the Munsell colors. The document lists acrylic fiber and nylon as fibers that could be used in construction of flags used by the military. For acrylic, the red color is 5.7R 3.7/15.5 and white is N9.4; nylon has 6.2R 4/15.2 for red and N9.2 for white.[59]​ In a document issued by the Official Development Assistance (ODA), the red color for the Hinomaru and the ODA logo is listed as DIC 156 and CMYK 0-100-90-0.[60]​ During deliberations about the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem, there was a suggestion to either use a bright red (赤色 (aka iro?)) shade or from the color pool of the Japanese Industrial Standards.[61]​

Official color (White) Official color (Red) Color system Source Year URL
     N9 [62]​      5R 4/12 [62]​ Munsell DSP Z 8701C Showa 48/1973 [59]​
N/A      156 [63]​ DIC ODA Symbol Mark Guidelines Heisei 7/1995 [60]​
N/A      0-100-90-0 CMYK ODA Symbol Mark Guidelines Heisei 7/1995 [60]​
     N9.4 (Acrylic) [62]​      5.7R 3.7/15.5 (Acrylic) [62]​ Munsell DSP Z 8701E Heisei 20/2008 [59]​
     N9.2 (Nylon) [62]​      6.2R 4/15.2 (Nylon) [62]​ Munsell DSP Z 8701E Heisei 20/2008 [59]​
N/A      032 Coated[64]​ Pantone 2008 Summer Olympics Protocol Guide – Flag Manual 2008 [65]​

Use and customs

Two men in uniform, one holding a flag.
An example of a Hinomaru Yosegaki; Commander Dwight Hodge Dexter explains the Japanese flag (memento of his exploits) to LTJG Mel Venter during a 1943 conference in San Francisco.

When the Hinomaru was first introduced, the government required citizens to greet the emperor with the flag. There was some resentment among the Japanese over the flag, resulting in some protests. It took some time for the flag to gain acceptance among the people.[14]​

During World War II, it was a popular custom for friends, classmates, and relatives of a deploying soldier to sign a Hinomaru and present it to him. The flag was also used as a good luck charm and a prayer to wish the soldier back safely from battle. One term for this kind of charm is Hinomaru Yosegaki (日の丸寄せ書き).[66]​ One tradition is that any writing must not touch the sun disc.[67]​ After battles, these flags were often captured or later found on deceased Japanese soldiers. While these flags became souvenirs,[67]​ there has been a growing trend of sending the signed flags back to the descendants of the soldier.[68]​

The tradition for signing the Hinomaru as a good luck charm still continues, but in a limited fashion. The Hinomaru Yosegaki could be shown at sporting events to give support to the Japanese national team.[69]​ Another example is the hachimaki headband, which was white in color and had the red sun in the middle. During World War II, the phrases "Certain Victory" (必勝 Hisshō?) or "Seven Lives" was written on the hachimaki and worn by kamikaze pilots. This denoted that the pilot was willing to die for his country.[70]​

Before World War II, all homes were required to display Hinomaru on national holidays.[16]​ Since the war, the display of the flag of Japan is mostly limited to buildings attached to national and local governments such as city halls; it is rarely seen at private homes or commercial buildings,[16]​ but some people and companies have advocated displaying the flag on holidays. Although the government of Japan encourages citizens and residents to fly the Hinomaru during national holidays, they are not legally required to do so.[71]​[72]​ Since the Emperor's 80th Birthday on December 23, 2002, the Kyushu Railway Company has displayed the Hinomaru at 330 stations.[73]​

Present-day perception

A group of people wave Japanese flags at a palace.
Emperor Akihito prepares to greet the flag-waving crowd at the Imperial Palace on his birthday. Photo taken on December 23, 2004.

According to polls conduced by mainstream media, most Japanese people had perceived the flag of Japan as the national flag even before the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem in 1999.[74]​ Despite this, controversies surrounding the use of the flag in school events or media still remain. For example, liberal newspapers such as Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun often feature articles critical of the flag of Japan, reflecting their readerships' political spectrum.[75]​

The display of the Hinomaru at homes and businesses is also debated in Japanese society. Because of the association of the Hinomaru with uyoku dantai (right wing) activists, reactionary politics, or hooliganism, some homes and businesses do not fly the flag.[16]​ To other Japanese, the flag represents the time where democracy was suppressed when Japan was an empire.[76]​

Negative perceptions of the Hinomaru exist in former colonies of Japan as well as within Japan itself, such as in Okinawa. In one notable example of this, on October 26, 1987, an Okinawan supermarket owner burned the Hinomaru before the start of the National Sports Festival of Japan.[77]​ The flag burner, Chibana Shôichi, burned the Hinomaru not only to show opposition to atrocities committed by the Japanese army and the continued presence of U.S. forces, but also to prevent it from being displayed in public.[78]​ Other incidents in Okinawa included the flag being torn down during school ceremonies and students refusing to honor the flag as it was being raised to the sounds of Kimigayo.[17]​ In the People's Republic of China and South Korea, both of which had been occupied by the Empire of Japan, the 1999 formal adoption of the Hinomaru was met with reactions of Japan moving towards the right and also a step towards remilitarization. The passage of the 1999 law also coincided with the debates about the status of Yasukuni, US-Japan military cooperation and the creation of a missile defense. In other nations that Japan occupied, the 1999 law was met with mixed reactions or glossed over. In Singapore, the older generation still harbors ill feelings toward the flag while the younger generation does not hold similar views. The Philippines government not only believed that Japan was not going to revert back to militarism, but the goal of the 1999 law was to formally establish two symbols (the flag and anthem) in law and every state has a right to create national symbols.[79]​ Japan has no law criminalizing the burning of the Hinomaru, but foreign flags cannot be burned in Japan.[80]​[81]​

Protocol

A diagram of a white flag with a black ring. A black ribbon and ball appear above the flag.
Diagram published with Regulation 1 from 1912 (Raising Mourning Flag for the Emperor)

According to protocol, the flag may fly from sunrise until sunset; businesses and schools are permitted to fly the flag from opening to closing.[82]​ When flying the flags of Japan and another country at the same time, the Japanese flag takes the position of honor and the flag of the guest country flies to its right. Both flags must be at the same height and of equal size. When more than one foreign flag is displayed, Japan's flag is arranged in the alphabetical order prescribed by the United Nations.[83]​ When the flag becomes unsuitable to use, it is customarily burned in private.[82]​ The Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem does not specify on how the flag should be used, but different prefectures came up with their own regulations to use the Hinomaru and other prefectural flags.[84]​[85]​

The Hinomaru flag has at least two mourning styles. One is to display the flag at half-staff (半旗 Han-ki?), as is common in many countries. The offices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs hoist the flag at half-staff when a funeral is performed for a foreign nation's head of state.[86]​ An alternative mourning style is to cover the sphere finial by black cloth and place a black ribbon above the flag, known as a mourning flag (弔旗 Chō-ki?). This style dates back to July 30, 1912, when Emperor Meiji died and the Cabinet issued an ordinance stipulating that the national flag should be raised in mourning when the Emperor dies.[87]​ The Cabinet has the authority to announce the half-staffing of the national flag.[88]​

Public schools

A group of people facing a man and woman on a stage. Two flags are above the stage.
A Hokkaido Prefecture graduation ceremony with both the Hinomaru and the Hokkaido Prefecture flags

Since the end of World War II, the Ministry of Education has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the Hinomaru and Kimigayo at schools under their jurisdiction. The first of these statements was released in 1950, stating that it was desirable, but not required, to use both symbols. This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defense education.[30]​ In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines, the LDP-controlled government first demanded that the flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to Kimigayo.[89]​ Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms.[30]​

The 1999 curriculum guideline issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem decrees that "on entrance and graduation ceremonies, schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the "Kimigayo" (national anthem), given the significance of the flag and the song."[90]​ Additionally, the ministry's commentary on the 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools note that "given the advance of internationalization, along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese, it is important to nurture school children's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and Kimigayo as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society."[91]​ The ministry also stated that if Japanese students cannot respect their own symbols, then they will not be able to respect the symbols of other nations.[92]​

Schools have been the center of controversy over both the anthem and the national flag.[31]​ The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both the anthem and flag at events under their jurisdiction. The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs.[93]​ Some have protested that such rules violate the Constitution of Japan, but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies, their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens.[9]​ As a sign of protest, schools refused to display the Hinomaru at school graduations and some parents ripped down the flag.[31]​ Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against Tokyo Governor Shintarō Ishihara and senior officials for ordering teachers to honor the Hinomaru and Kimigayo.[94]​ After earlier opposition, the Japan Teachers Union accepts the use of both the flag and anthem; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system.[95]​

Related flags

Military

For a list of military flags, see List of Japanese flags#Military. See also Rising Sun Flag.

The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) and the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force use a version of the sun disc design with eight red rays extending outward, called Hachijō-Kyokujitsuki (八条旭日旗). A gold border lies partially around the edge.[96]​

A well-known variant of the sun disc design is the sun disc with 16 red rays in a Siemens star formation, which was also historically used by Japan's military, particularly the Imperial Japanese Navy. The ensign, known in Japanese as the Kyokujitsu-ki (旭日旗, "Rising Sun Flag"), was first adopted as the naval ensign on October 7, 1889, and was used until the end of World War II in 1945. It was re-adopted on June 30, 1954, and is now used as the naval ensign of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF).[96]​ In the surrounding Asian countries that were occupied by Japan, this flag still carries a negative connotation.[97]​ The JMSDF also employs the use of a masthead pennant. First adopted in 1914 and readopted in 1965, the masthead pennant contains a simplified version of the naval ensign at the hoist end, with the rest of the pennant colored white. The ratio of the pennant is between 1:40 and 1:90.[98]​

The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF), established independently in 1952, has only the plain sun disc as its emblem.[99]​ This is the only branch of service with an emblem that does not invoke the rayed Imperial Standard. However, the branch does have an ensign to fly on bases and during parades. The ensign was created in 1972, which was the third used by the JASDF since its creation. The ensign contains the emblem of the branch centered on a blue background.[100]​

Although not an official national flag, the Z signal flag played a major role in Japanese naval history. On May 27, 1905, Admiral Heihachirō Tōgō of the Mikasa was preparing to engage the Russian Baltic Fleet. Before the Battle of Tsushima began, Togo raised the Z flag on the Mikasa and engaged the Russian fleet, winning the battle for Japan. The raising of the flag said to the crew the following: "The fate of Imperial Japan hangs on this one battle; all hands will exert themselves and do their best." The Z flag was also raised on the aircraft carrier Akagi on the eve of the Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in December 1941.[101]​

A red sun with eight red rays on a white background. On each side of the flag, there are two golden triangles.
A red sun with eight red rays on a white background. On each side of the flag, there are two golden triangles.  
[[Archivo:|center|border|130x180px|alt=|Naval Ensign of Japan.svg]]
Naval Ensign of Japan.svg 
Archivo:A red sun with sixteen red rays on a white background.
Naval Ensign (旭日旗)
Naval Ensign (旭日旗)  
A golden symbol placed on a blue background. The golden symbol is an eagle perched on a pair of wings.
A golden symbol placed on a blue background. The golden symbol is an eagle perched on a pair of wings. 
[[Archivo:|center|border|130x180px|alt=|Japan Air Self-Defense Force roundel.svg]]
Japan Air Self-Defense Force roundel.svg 
Archivo:A red circle with a white ring.
Roundel of the JASDF
Roundel of the JASDF  

Imperial

A golden flower centered on a red background
The standard of the Japanese emperor
For a list of imperial flags, see List of Japanese flags#Imperial.

Starting in 1870, flags were created for the Japanese Emperor (then Emperor Meiji), the Empress, and for other members of the imperial family.[102]​ At first, the emperor's flag was ornate, with a sun resting in the center of an artistic pattern. He had flags that were used on land, at sea, and when he was in a carriage. The imperial family was also granted flags to be used at sea and while on land (one for use on foot and one carriage flag). The carriage flags were a monocolored chrysanthemum, with 16 petals, placed in the center of a monocolored background.[54]​ These flags were discarded in 1889 when the Emperor decided to use the chrysanthemum on a red background as his flag. With minor changes in the color shades and proportions, the flags adopted in 1889 are still in use by the imperial family.[103]​[104]​

The current emperor's flag is a 16-petal chrysanthemum, colored in gold, centered on a red background with a 2:3 ratio. The Empress uses the same flag, except the shape is that of a swallow tail. The crown prince and the crown princess use the same flags, except with a smaller chrysanthemum and a white border in the middle of the flags.[105]​ The chrysanthemum has been associated with the Imperial throne since the rule of Emperor Go-Toba in the 1100s, but it did not become the exclusive symbol of the Imperial throne until 1868.[102]​

Subnational

Three flags fly in the sky.
The Japanese flag flying with the flags of Okinawa Prefecture and Urasoe City
For a list of prefectural flags, see List of Japanese flags#Prefectural.
For a list of municipal flags, see List of Japanese municipal flags.

Each of Japan's 47 prefectures has a flag resembling the national flag insofar as consisting of a symbol, called a mon, charged on a monocolored field (with the exception of Ehime, which uses a symbol on a bicolor background).[106]​ There are several prefecture flags, such as Hiroshima's, that match their specifications to the national flag (2:3 ratio, mon placed in the center and is 3/5th the length of the flag).[107]​ Some of the mon display the name of the prefecture in Japanese characters; others are stylized depictions of the location or another special feature of the prefecture. An example of a prefectural flag is that of Nagano, where the orange katakana character ナ (na) appears in the center of a white disc. One interpretation of the mon is that the na symbol represents a mountain and the white disc, a lake. The orange color represents the sun while the white color represents the snow of the region.[108]​

Municipalities can also adopt flags of their own. The designs of the city flags are similar to the prefectural flags: a mon on a monocolored background. An example is the flag of Amakusa in Kumamoto Prefecture: the city symbol is composed of the Katakana character ア (a) and surrounded by waves.[109]​ This symbol is centered on a white flag, with a ratio of 1:1.5.[110]​ Both the city emblem and the flag were adopted in 2006.[110]​

Derivatives

In addition to the flags used by the military, several other flag designs were inspired by the national flag. The former Japan Post flag consisted of the Hinomaru with a red horizontal bar placed in the center of the flag. There was also a thin white ring around the red sun. It was later replaced by a flag that consisted of the 〒 postal mark in red on a white background.[111]​

Two recently designed national flags resemble the Japanese flag. In 1971, Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan, and it adopted a national flag that had a green background, charged with an off-centered red disc that contained a golden map of Bangladesh. The current flag, adopted in 1972, dropped the golden map and kept everything else.[112]​ The Government of Bangladesh officially calls the red disc a circle;[113]​ the red color symbolizes the blood that was shed to create their country.[114]​ The island nation of Palau uses a flag of similar design, but the color scheme is completely different. While the Government of Palau does not cite the Japanese flag as an influence on their national flag, Japan did administer Palau from 1914 until 1944.[115]​ The flag of Palau is an off-centered golden-yellow full moon on a sky blue background.[116]​ The moon stands for peace and a young nation while the blue background represents Palau's transition to self government from 1981 to 1994, when it achieved full independence.[117]​

The Japanese naval ensign also influenced other flag designs. One such flag design is used by the Asahi Shimbun. At the bottom hoist of the flag, one quarter of the sun is displayed. The kanji character 朝 is displayed on the flag, colored white, covering most of the sun. The rays extend from the sun, occurring in a red and white alternating order, culminating in 13 total stripes.[118]​[119]​ The flag is commonly seen at the National High School Baseball Championship, as the Asahi Shimbun is a main sponsor of the tournament.[120]​ The rank flags and ensigns of the Imperial Japanese Navy also based their designs off of the naval ensign.[121]​

See also

References

Notes
  1. ↑ a b c Plantilla:Vcite web
  2. ↑ Dyer, 1909, pp. 24.
  3. ↑ Edgington, 2003, pp. 123–124.
  4. ↑ a b Itoh, 2003, pp. 205.
  5. ↑ Holden, 1916, pp. 154.
  6. ↑ Feldman, 2004, pp. 151–155.
  7. ↑ Ashkenzai, 2003, pp. 112–113.
  8. ↑ Hall, 1996, pp. 110.
  9. ↑ a b c Plantilla:Vcite news
  10. ↑ Turnbull, 2001
  11. ↑ Goodman, Neary, 1996, pp. 77–78.
  12. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  13. ↑ Feiler, 2004, pp. 214.
  14. ↑ a b Ohnuki-Tierney, 2002, pp. 68–69.
  15. ↑ Rohl, 2005, pp. 20.
  16. ↑ a b c d e f Befu, 1992, pp. 32–33.
  17. ↑ a b c Befu, 2001, pp. 92–95.
  18. ↑ Nornes, 2003, pp. 81.
  19. ↑ Cwiertka, 2007, pp. 117–119.
  20. ↑ Partner, 2004, pp. 55–56.
  21. ↑ Tipton, 2002, pp. 137.
  22. ↑ Newell, 1982, pp. 28.
  23. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite news
  24. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  25. ↑ Taylor, 2004, pp. 321.
  26. ↑ Goodman, Neary, 1996, pp. 102.
  27. ↑ Ebrey, 2004, pp. 443.
  28. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite news
  29. ↑ a b Plantilla:Vcite web
  30. ↑ a b c d e Goodman, Neary, 1996, pp. 81–83.
  31. ↑ a b c Plantilla:Vcite news
  32. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite book
  33. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  34. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite book
  35. ↑ Carr, Hulme, 1956, pp. 200.
  36. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  37. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  38. ↑ Meyer, 2009, pp. 266.
  39. ↑ Large, 1992, pp. 184.
  40. ↑ Yamazumi, 1988, pp. 76.
  41. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite video
  42. ↑ a b Borneman, 2003, pp. 112.
  43. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite news
  44. ↑ Kataoka, 1991, pp. 149.
  45. ↑ Aspinall, 2001, pp. 126.
  46. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  47. ↑ a b Itoh, 2003, pp. 209–210
  48. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  49. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  50. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  51. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite news
  52. ↑ 明治3年太政官布告第57号,
  53. ↑ Takenaka, 2003, pp. 68–69.
  54. ↑ a b 明治3年太政官布告第651号,
  55. ↑ Takenaka, 2003, pp. 66.
  56. ↑ a b 国旗及び国歌に関する法律,
  57. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  58. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  59. ↑ a b c d e Plantilla:Vcite web
  60. ↑ a b c Plantilla:Vcite web
  61. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  62. ↑ a b c d e f Hexadecimal obtained by placing the colors in Feelimage Analyzer
  63. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  64. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  65. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite book
  66. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  67. ↑ a b Smith, 1975, pp. 171.
  68. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite news
  69. ↑ Takenaka, 2003, pp. 101.
  70. ↑ Cutler, 2001, pp. 271.
  71. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  72. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  73. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  74. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  75. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  76. ↑ Khan, 1998, pp. 190.
  77. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite news
  78. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  79. ↑ Itoh, Mayumi (2001-07). «Japan's Neo-Nationalism: The Role of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo Legislation». JPRI working paper 79: 16. Consultado el 17 de abril de 2010. 
  80. ↑ Lauterpacht, 2002, pp. 599.
  81. ↑ Inoguchi, Jain, 2000, pp. 228.
  82. ↑ a b Plantilla:Vcite web
  83. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  84. ↑ 国旗及び国歌の取扱いについて,
  85. ↑ 国旗及び県旗の取扱いについて,
  86. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  87. ↑ 大正元年閣令第一号,
  88. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  89. ↑ Trevor, 2001, pp. 78.
  90. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  91. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  92. ↑ Aspinall, 2001, pp. 125.
  93. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite news
  94. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  95. ↑ Heenan, 1998, pp. 206.
  96. ↑ a b 自衛隊法施行令,
  97. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite news
  98. ↑ 海上自衛隊旗章規則,
  99. ↑ 〇海上自衛隊の使用する航空機の分類等及び塗粧標準等に 関する達,
  100. ↑ 自衛隊の旗に関する訓令,
  101. ↑ Carpenter, 2004, pp. 124.
  102. ↑ a b Fujitani, 1996, pp. 48–49.
  103. ↑ Matoba, 1901, pp. 180–181.
  104. ↑ Takahashi, 1903, pp. 180–181.
  105. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  106. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  107. ↑ 広島県県章および県旗の制定,
  108. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  109. ↑ 天草市章,
  110. ↑ a b 天草市旗,
  111. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  112. ↑ Gupta, 2006, pp. 1725.
  113. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  114. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  115. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite journal
  116. ↑ Plantilla:Vcite web
  117. ↑ Smith, 2001, pp. 73.
  118. ↑ Saito, 1987, pp. 53.
  119. ↑ Tazagi, 2004, pp. 11.
  120. ↑ Mangan, 2000, pp. 213.
  121. ↑ Gordon, 1915, pp. 217–218.
Bibliography
Legislation

External links

Plantilla:Asia topic Plantilla:Nationalflags Plantilla:Featured article -->

Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bandera_de_Japón&oldid=36867925»