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== Referencias ==
== Referencias ==
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<ref name=GaiaDR3>{{Cite Gaia DR3|2059383668236814720}}</ref>

<ref name="NYT-20210218">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=A Famous Black Hole Gets a Massive Update – Cygnus X-1, one of the first identified black holes, is much weightier than expected, raising new questions about how such objects form |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/18/science/cygnus-black-hole-astronomy.html
|date=18 February 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=21 February 2021 }}</ref>

<ref name="SCI-20210218">{{cite journal |author=Miller-Jones, James C. A. |display-authors=et al. |title=Cygnus X-1 contains a 21–solar mass black hole—Implications for massive star winds |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abb3363 |date=18 February 2021 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=371 |issue=6533 |pages=1046–1049 |doi=10.1126/science.abb3363 |pmid=33602863 |access-date=21 February 2021 |arxiv=2102.09091 |bibcode=2021Sci...371.1046M |s2cid=231951746 }}</ref>

<ref name=apj742_2>{{citation | last1=Reid | first1=Mark J. | last2=McClintock | first2=Jeffrey E. | last3=Narayan | first3=Ramesh | last4=Gou | first4=Lijun | last5=Remillard | first5=Ronald A. | last6=Orosz | first6=Jerome A. | title=The Trigonometric Parallax of Cygnus&nbsp;X-1 | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=742 | issue=2 | pages=83 |date=December 2011 | doi=10.1088/0004-637X/742/2/83 | bibcode=2011ApJ...742...83R |arxiv = 1106.3688 | s2cid=96429771 }}</ref>

<ref name=SIMBAD>{{citation | date=March 3, 2003 | url=http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?protocol=html&Ident=HDE+226868 | title=V* V1357 Cyg – High Mass X-ray Binary | publisher=Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | access-date=2008-03-03 }}</ref>

<ref name=lob647>{{citation | last1=Bregman | first1=J. | last2=Butler | first2=D. | last3=Kemper | first3=E. | last4=Koski | first4=A. | last5=Kraft | first5=R. P. | last6=Stone | first6=R. P. S. | title=Colors, magnitudes, spectral types and distances for stars in the field of the X-ray source Cyg&nbsp;X-1 | journal=Lick Observatory Bulletin | date=1973 | pages=1 | volume=647 | bibcode=1973LicOB..24....1B }}</ref>

<ref name=apj321>{{citation | last1=Ninkov | first1=Z. | last2=Walker | first2=G. A. H. | last3=Yang | first3=S. | title=The primary orbit and the absorption lines of HDE&nbsp;226868 (Cygnus&nbsp;X-1) | journal=Astrophysical Journal | date=1987 | volume=321 | pages=425–437 | bibcode=1987ApJ...321..425N | doi=10.1086/165641 | url=http://scholarworks.rit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2310&context=article | access-date=2018-11-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922020837/http://scholarworks.rit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2310&context=article | archive-date=2017-09-22 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=hadrava>{{citation | first1=Petr | last1=Hadrava | title=Optical spectroscopy of Cyg&nbsp;X-1 | journal=Proceedings of RAGtime 8/9: Workshops on Black Holes and Neutron Stars | pages=71 | date=September 15–21, 2007 | location=Opava, Czech Republic | arxiv=0710.0758 |bibcode = 2007ragt.meet...71H }}</ref>

<ref name=esa20041105>{{citation | date=2004-11-05 | publisher=ESA | title=Observations: Seeing in X-ray wavelengths | url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Observations_Seeing_in_X-ray_wavelengths | access-date=2008-08-12 }}</ref>

<ref name=lewin_vanderklis2006>{{citation | first1=Walter | last1=Lewin | last2=Van Der Klis | first2=Michiel | date=2006 | title=Compact Stellar X-ray Sources | publisher=Cambridge University Press | pages=159 | isbn=0-521-82659-4 }}</ref>

<ref name=usno2010>{{citation | title=2010 X-Ray Sources | publisher=U.S. Naval Observatory | work=The Astronomical Almanac | url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecH/Xray.html | access-date=2009-08-04 }} gives a range of 235–{{val|1320|u=μJy}} at energies of 2–{{val|10|u=kEv}}, where a [[Jansky]] (Jy) is {{val|e=-26|u=Wm<sup>−2</sup> Hz<sup>−1</sup>}}.</ref>

<ref name=harko20060628>{{citation|last=Harko |first=T. |date=June 28, 2006 |url=http://www.physics.hku.hk/~astro/harko_science.html |title=Black Holes |publisher=University of Hong Kong |access-date=2008-03-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210234214/http://www.physics.hku.hk/~astro/harko_science.html |archive-date=February 10, 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name=nayashin_dove1998>{{cite arXiv | last1=Nayakshin | first1=Sergei | first2=James B. | last2=Dove | date=November 3, 1998 | title=X-rays From Magnetic Flares In Cygnus X-1: The Role Of A Transition Layer | eprint=astro-ph/9811059 |mode=cs2}}</ref>

<ref name=mdsai76_600>{{citation | last1=Gallo | first1=Elena | last2=Fender | first2=Rob | date=2005 | title=Accretion modes and jet production in black hole X-ray binaries | journal=Memorie della Società Astronomica Italiana | volume=76 | pages=600–607 | arxiv=astro-ph/0509172 | bibcode=2005MmSAI..76..600G }}</ref>

<ref name=su20040227>{{citation | date=February 27, 2004 | title=Galaxy Entree or Main Course? | publisher=Swinburne University | url=http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/sao/astronomynews/astronews2004s1.xml | access-date=2008-03-31 }}</ref>

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<ref name=heasarc20030626>{{citation | date=June 26, 2003 | url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/uhuru/uhuru.html | title=The Uhuru Satellite | publisher=NASA | access-date=2008-05-09 }}</ref>

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<ref name=nature232_5308_246>{{citation | last1=Braes | first1=L. L. E. | last2=Miley | first2=G. K. | date=July 23, 1971 | title=Physical Sciences: Detection of Radio Emission from Cygnus&nbsp;X-1 | journal=Nature | volume=232 | issue=5308 | pages=246 | bibcode=1971Natur.232Q.246B | doi=10.1038/232246a0 | pmid=16062947 | s2cid=33340308 }}</ref>

<ref name=vrsb9_100_173>{{citation | last1=Braes | first1=L. L. E. | last2=Miley | first2=G. K. | date=1971 | title=Variable Radio Emission from X-Ray Sources | journal=Veröffentlichungen Remeis-Sternwarte Bamberg | volume=9 | issue=100 | pages=173 | bibcode=1972VeBam.100...... }}</ref>

<ref name=bernard_stecker1999>{{citation | first1=Bernard | last1=Abrams | last2=Stecker | first2=Michael | date=1999 | title=Structures in Space: Hidden Secrets of the Deep Sky | pages=91 | publisher=Springer | isbn=1-85233-165-8 | quote=Eta Cygni is 25 arc minutes to the west-south-west of this star. }}</ref>

<ref name=nature235_2_37>{{citation | last1=Webster | first1=B. Louise | last2=Murdin | first2=Paul | date=1972 | title=Cygnus&nbsp;X-1—a Spectroscopic Binary with a Heavy Companion? | journal=Nature | volume=235 | issue=5332 | pages=37–38 | doi=10.1038/235037a0 | bibcode = 1972Natur.235...37W | s2cid=4195462 }}</ref>

<ref name=nature235_2_271>{{citation | last=Bolton | first=C. T. | date=1972 | title=Identification of Cygnus&nbsp;X-1 with HDE&nbsp;226868 | journal=Nature | volume=235 | issue=5336 | pages=271–273 | doi=10.1038/235271b0 | bibcode = 1972Natur.235..271B | s2cid=4222070 }}</ref>

<ref name=luminet1992>{{citation | first=Jean-Pierre | last=Luminet | date=1992 | title=Black Holes | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-40906-3 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/blackholes0000lumi }}</ref>

<ref name=aaa305_871>{{citation | last=Bombaci | first=I. | title=The maximum mass of a neutron star | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | date=1996 | volume=305 | pages=871–877 | bibcode=1996A&A...305..871B | arxiv=astro-ph/9608059 | doi=10.1086/310296 | s2cid=119085893 }}</ref>

<ref name=rolston1997>{{citation | last=Rolston | first=Bruce | date=November 10, 1997 | url=http://news.utoronto.ca/bin/bulletin/nov10_97/art4.htm | title=The First Black Hole | publisher=University of Toronto | access-date=2008-03-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080307181205/http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin/bulletin/nov10_97/art4.htm | archive-date = March 7, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name=apl16_1_9>{{citation | last1=Shipman | first1=H. L. | date=1975 | title=The implausible history of triple star models for Cygnus&nbsp;X-1 Evidence for a black hole | journal=Astrophysical Letters | volume=16 | issue=1 | pages=9–12 | bibcode=1975ApL....16....9S | doi=10.1016/S0304-8853(99)00384-4 | last2=Yu | first2=Z. | last3=Du | first3=Y. W. }}</ref>

<ref name=apj189_77>{{citation | last1=Rothschild | first1=R. E. | last2=Boldt | first2=E. A. | last3=Holt | first3=S. S. | last4=Serlemitsos | first4=P. J. | title=Millisecond Temporal Structure in Cygnus&nbsp;X-1 | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | date=1974 | volume=189 | pages=77–115 | bibcode=1974ApJ...189L..13R | doi=10.1086/181452 }}</ref>

<ref name=mnras372_3_1366>{{citation | last1=Koerding | first1=Elmar | last2=Jester | first2=Sebastian | last3=Fender | first3=Rob | title=Accretion states and radio loudness in Active Galactic Nuclei: analogies with X-ray binaries | journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] | date=2006 | volume=372 | issue=3 | pages=1366–1378 | arxiv=astro-ph/0608628 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10954.x | bibcode=2006MNRAS.372.1366K | s2cid=14833297 }}</ref>

<ref name=brainerd20050720>{{citation | last=Brainerd | first=Jim | date=July 20, 2005 | url=http://www.astrophysicsspectator.com/topics/observation/XRayAGN.html | title=X-rays from AGNs | publisher=The Astrophysics Spectator | access-date=2008-03-24 }}</ref>

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<ref name="Kemp">{{cite journal |last1=Kemp |first1=J. C. |last2=Karitskaya |first2=E. A. |last3=Kumsiashvili |first3=M. I. |last4=Lyutyi |first4=V. M. |last5=Cherepashchuk |first5=A. M. |title=Longperiod Optical Variability of the CYGNUS-X-1 System |journal=Soviet Astronomy |date=April 1987 |volume=31 |issue=2 |page=170 |bibcode=1987SvA....31..170K |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987SvA....31..170K/abstract |access-date=27 December 2021}}</ref>

<ref name=apj200>{{citation | last=Bolton | first=C. T. | title=Optical observations and model for Cygnus&nbsp;X-1 | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | date=1975 | volume=200 | pages=269–277 | bibcode=1975ApJ...200..269B | doi=10.1086/153785 }}</ref>

<ref name=science300_5622_1119>{{citation | last1=Mirabel | first1=I. Félix | last2=Rodrigues | first2=Irapuan | title=Formation of a Black Hole in the Dark | journal=Science | date=2003 | volume=300 | issue=5622 | pages=1119–1120 | doi=10.1126/science.1083451 | pmid=12714674 | arxiv = astro-ph/0305205 | bibcode = 2003Sci...300.1119M | s2cid=45544180 }}</ref>

<ref name=apj167_L15>{{citation | last1=Gursky | first=H. | date=1971 | last2=Gorenstein | first2=P. | last3=Kerr | first3=F. J. | last4=Grayzeck | first4=E. J. | bibcode=1971ApJ...167L..15G | title=The Estimated Distance to Cygnus&nbsp;X-1 Based on its Low-Energy X-Ray Spectrum | journal=Astrophysical Journal | volume=167 | pages=L15 | doi=10.1086/180751 }}</ref>

<ref name=goebel>{{citation | first=Greg | last=Goebel | url=http://www.vectorsite.net/tastgal_07.html | title=7.0 The Milky Way Galaxy | publisher=In The Public Domain | access-date=2008-06-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612014659/http://www.vectorsite.net/tastgal_07.html | archive-date=2008-06-12 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=MNRAS358_3_851>{{citation | last=Ziółkowski | first=J. | title=Evolutionary constraints on the masses of the components of HDE&nbsp;226868/Cyg&nbsp;X-1 binary system | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | date=2005 | volume=358 | issue=3 | pages=851–859 | arxiv=astro-ph/0501102 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08796.x | bibcode=2005MNRAS.358..851Z| s2cid=119334761 }} Note: for radius and luminosity, see Table 1 with ''d''=2&nbsp;kpc.</ref>

<ref name=orosz2011>{{citation |last=Orosz |first=Jerome |date=December 1, 2011 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=742 |issue=2 |pages=84 |title=The Mass of the Black Hole In Cygnus X-1 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/742/2/84|arxiv = 1106.3689 |bibcode = 2011ApJ...742...84O |s2cid=18732012 }}</ref>

<ref name=esa070516>{{citation | last1=Strohmayer | first1=Tod | date=May 16, 2007 | last2=Shaposhnikov | first2=Nikolai | last3=Schartel | first3=Norbert | url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/New_technique_for_weighing_black_holes | title=New technique for 'weighing' black holes | publisher=[[European Space Agency|ESA]] | access-date=2008-03-10 }}</ref>

<ref name=mit20060109>{{citation | date=January 9, 2006 | url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2005/blackhole_noreturn.html | title=Scientists find black hole's 'point of no return' | publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology | access-date=2008-03-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060113032611/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/blackhole1.html | archive-date = 13 January 2006}}</ref>

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<ref name=roy_watzke2003>{{citation | last1=Roy | first1=Steve | last2=Watzke | first2=Megan | date=September 17, 2003 | title="Iron-Clad" Evidence For Spinning Black Hole | journal=Chandra Press Release | page=21 | publisher=Chandra press Room | bibcode=2003cxo..pres...21. | url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/press/03_releases/press_091703.html | access-date=2008-03-11 }}</ref>

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<ref name=wen1998>{{citation | last1=Wen | first1=Han Chin |date=March 1998 | bibcode=1997PhDT.........6W | title=Ten Microsecond Time Resolution Studies of Cygnus&nbsp;X-1 | pages=6 | publisher=Stanford University }}</ref>

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{{Control de autoridades}}
{{Control de autoridades}}

Revisión del 05:31 12 oct 2022

Representación artística del sistema binario HDE 226868 Cygnus X-1. (Ilustración ESA/Hubble)

Cygnus X-1 (abreviado como Cyg X-1)[1]​[2]​[3]​ es un agujero negro que crea una fuente muy brillante de rayos X[4]​ situada en la constelación del Cisne. Fue descubierto en 1964 desde un detector de rayos X a bordo de un cohete suborbital Aerobee lanzado desde el White Sands Missile Range.[5]​ Cyg X-1 es muy variable pero en rayos X duros (rayos X con energía de más de 30 keV) suele ser la fuente más brillante del cielo.[6]​

Es un ejemplo clásico de una Binaria de Rayos X, sistemas compuestos por un objeto compacto, que puede ser un agujero negro o una estrella de neutrones, y una estrella compañera. En el caso de Cygnus X-1, el objeto compacto es un agujero negro de 14.81±0.98[7]​ que orbita alrededor de la estrella supergigante azul HDE 226868 de magnitud aparente 8,9. Como en toda binaria de rayos X, no es el agujero negro el que emite los rayos X, sino la materia que está a punto de caer en él. Esta materia (gas y plasma) forma un disco de acrecimiento que orbita alrededor del agujero negro y alcanza temperaturas de millones de kelvin.

Cygnus X-1 constituye el primer caso en el que se pudo probar la presencia de un agujero negro.[8]​

Se observan también chorros de materia que se extienden desde unas unidades astronómicas hasta varios pársecs, donde colisiona con el medio interestelar y da lugar a un arco de emisión en el óptico. Para generar este arco, el chorro debe tener una potencia de 20000 veces la potencia de nuestro sol.[cita requerida]

El sistema se encuentra a unos 6000 años luz de la Tierra.

Discovery and observation

La observación de emiisiones de rayos X permitió a los astrónomos estudiar fenómenos celestes que involucran gas con temperaturas de millones de grados. Sin embargo, debido a que las emisiones de rayos X son bloqueadas por la atmósfera terrestre, la observación de fuentes celesteds de rayos X no es posible a menos que se eleven los instrumentos hasta alturas a las que penetren los rayos X. [9]​[10]​ Cygnus X-1 fue descubirto utilizando instrumentos de rayos X que fueron llevados a bordo de un cohete espacial suborbital desde el White Sands Missile Range en Nuevo México. Como parte de un esfuerzo por relevar estas fuentes, se realizó un relevamiento en 1964 usando dos cohetes suborbitales Aerobee. The rockets carried Geiger counters to measure X-ray emission in wavelength range 1–Error de Lua en Módulo:Val en la línea 269: attempt to call local 'lookup' (a nil value). across an 8.4° section of the sky. These instruments swept across the sky as the rockets rotated, producing a map of closely spaced scans.[11]​

As a result of these surveys, eight new sources of cosmic X-rays were discovered, including Cyg XR-1 (later Cyg X-1) in the constellation Cygnus. The celestial coordinates of this source were estimated as right ascension 19h53m and declination 34.6°. No se asoció a ninguna fuente de radio o óptica especialmente destacada en esa posición.[11]​

Viendo la necesidad de realizar estudios de mayor duración, en 1963 Riccardo Giacconi y Herb Gursky propusieron el primer satélite orbital para estudiar fuentes de rayos X. La NASA lanzó su satélite Uhuru en 1970,[12]​ que permitió descubrir 300 nuevas fuentes de rayos X.[13]​ Las observaciones extendidas del Uhuru sobre Cygnus X-1 mostraron fluctuaciones en la intensidad de los rayos X que se producen varias veces por segundo. [14]​Esta rápida variación significaba que la generación de energía debía tener lugar en una región relativamente pequeña de aproximadamente Error de Lua en Módulo:Val en la línea 269: attempt to call local 'lookup' (a nil value).,[15]​ ya que la velocidad de la luz restringe la comunicación entre regiones más distantes. Para comparar el tamaño, el diámetro del Sol es de aproximadamente Error de Lua en Módulo:Val en la línea 269: attempt to call local 'lookup' (a nil value)..

En abril-mayo de 1971, Luc Braes y George K. Miley del Observatorio de Leiden, e independientemente Robert M. Hjellming y Campbell Wade en el Observatorio Nacional de Radioastronomía,[16]​detectaron la emisión de radio de Cygnus X-1, y su posición de radio precisa señaló la fuente de rayos X a la estrella AGK2 +35 1910 = HDE 226868. [17]​[18]​En la esfera celeste, esta estrella se encuentra a medio grado de la estrella de 4ª magnitud Eta Cygni.[19]​Se trata de una estrella supergigante que es incapaz de emitir por sí misma las cantidades observadas de rayos X. Por lo tanto, la estrella debe tener una compañera que pueda calentar el gas a los millones de grados necesarios para producir la fuente de radiación de Cygnus X-1.

Louise Webster y Paul Murdin, en el Observatorio Real de Greenwich,[20]​ y Charles Thomas Bolton, trabajando de forma independiente en el Observatorio David Dunlap de la Universidad de Toronto,[21]​ anunciaron el descubrimiento de un compañero masivo oculto de HDE  226868 en 1972. Las mediciones del desplazamiento Doppler del espectro de la estrella demostraron la presencia de la compañera y permitieron estimar su masa a partir de los parámetros orbitales.[22]​ Basándose en la elevada masa predicha del objeto, conjeturaron que podría tratarse de un agujero negro, ya que la mayor estrella de neutrones posible no puede superar tres veces la masa del Sol.[23]​

Con nuevas observaciones que reforzaban las pruebas, a finales de 1973 la comunidad astronómica admitió en general que Cygnus X-1 era muy probablemente un agujero negro.[24]​[25]​Mediciones más precisas de Cygnus X-1 demostraron una variabilidad de hasta un solo milisegundo. Este intervalo es consistente con la turbulencia en un disco de materia acrecida que rodea a un agujero negro -el disco de acreción. Los estallidos de rayos X que duran alrededor de un tercio de segundo coinciden con el tiempo esperado de la materia que cae hacia un agujero negro.[26]​

Imagen de rayos X de Cygnus X-1 tomada por un telescopio montado en un globo, el proyecto High-Energy Replicated Optics (HERO).

Desde entonces, Cygnus X-1 se ha estudiado ampliamente mediante observaciones con instrumentos en órbita y en tierra.[27]​Las similitudes entre las emisiones de los binarios de rayos X como HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 y los núcleos galácticos activos sugieren un mecanismo común de generación de energía que implica un agujero negro, un disco de acreción en órbita y jets asociados. [28]​ Por esta razón, Cygnus X-1 se identifica entre una clase de objetos llamados microcuásars; un análogo de los cuásars, o fuentes de radio cuasiestelares, que ahora se sabe que son núcleos galácticos activos distantes. Los estudios científicos de los sistemas binarios como HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 pueden conducir a una mayor comprensión de la mecánica de las galaxias activas.[29]​

Referencias

  1. ↑ Bowyer, S.; Byram, E. T.; Chubb, T. A.; Friedman, H. (1965). «Cosmic X-ray Sources». Science (en inglés) 147: 394-398. ISSN 0036-8075. doi:10.1126/science.147.3656.394. Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2017. 
  2. ↑ Bowyer, S.; Byram, E. T.; Chubb, T. A.; Friedman, H. (1965). «Cosmic X-ray Sources». Science (en inglés) 147 (3656): 394-398. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17832788. doi:10.1126/science.147.3656.394. Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2017. 
  3. ↑ Bowyer, S.; Byram, E. T.; Chubb, T. A.; Friedman, H. (1965). «Cosmic X-ray Sources». Science (New York, N.Y.) 147 (3656): 394-398. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17832788. doi:10.1126/science.147.3656.394. Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2017. 
  4. ↑ «Observations: Seeing in X-ray wavelengths». European Space Agency (en inglés). Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2017. 
  5. ↑ McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Remillard, Ronald A. (1 de abril de 2006). Compact stellar X-ray sources (en inglés). pp. 157-213. ISBN 9780521826594. Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2017. 
  6. ↑ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006csxs.book..157M
  7. ↑ Orosz, Jerome A.; McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Aufdenberg, Jason P.; Remillard, Ronald A.; Reid, Mark J.; Narayan, Ramesh; Gou, Lijun (1 de diciembre de 2012). «The Mass of the Black Hole in Cygnus X-1». The Astrophysical Journal (en inglés) 742 (2): 84. ISSN 0004-637X. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/742/2/84. Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2017. 
  8. ↑ «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 10 de febrero de 2009. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014. 
  9. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas herbert2002
  10. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas apj611_2_1084
  11. ↑ a b Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas science3656
  12. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas heasarc20030626
  13. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas giacconi20021208
  14. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas apj166_L1
  15. ↑ Esta es la distancia que la luz puede recorrer en un tercio de segundo.
  16. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas apj168_L91
  17. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas nature232_5308_246
  18. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas vrsb9_100_173
  19. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas bernard_stecker1999
  20. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas nature235_2_37
  21. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas nature235_2_271
  22. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas luminet1992
  23. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas aa305_871
  24. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas rolston1997
  25. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas apl16_1_9
  26. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas apj189_77
  27. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas SIMBAD
  28. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas mnras372_3_1366
  29. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas brainerd20050720

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