Primera impresión

En psicología, una primera impresión es el momento en que una persona se encuentra con otra y forma una concepto de esa persona. La precisión de esa impresión varía según el observador y el objetivo (persona, objeto, escena, etc.) que se observe.​​

Las primeras impresiones suelen basarse en una amplia gama de características: edad, raza, cultura, idioma, género, apariencia física, acento, postura, voz, número de personas presentes y tiempo permitido para procesar.​​​​​​​ Las primeras impresiones que los individuos dan a otros podrían influir enormemente en la forma en que son tratados y vistos en muchos contextos de la vida cotidiana.​​

Velocidad y precisión

Solo toma una décima de segundo la acción de juzgar a alguien y dar una primera impresión.​ Ciertas investigaciones encuentran que cuanto más tiempo se toman los participantes para formar la impresión, más confianza tienen en las impresiones que recolectan.​​ Las personas no solo son rápidas para formar las primeras impresiones, sino que también son bastante precisas cuando el objetivo se presenta a sí mismo de manera genuina. Generalmente no hay mucha precisión para percibir emociones fingidas o para detectar mentiras.​

La velocidad a la que se detectan las diferentes cualidades en las primeras impresiones puede estar vinculada a lo que ha sido importante para la supervivencia desde una perspectiva evolutiva.​ Por ejemplo, la confiabilidad y el atractivo fueron los dos rasgos que se detectaron y evaluaron más rápidamente en un estudio de rostros humanos.​​ Las personas son bastante buenas para evaluar los rasgos de personalidad de los demás en general, pero parece haber una diferencia en los juicios de primera impresión entre adultos mayores y jóvenes. Los adultos mayores consideraron que las fotos de los adultos jóvenes son más saludables, más confiables y menos hostiles, pero más agresivas, que los adultos más jóvenes hicieron de las mismas fotos.​ Los adultos mayores pueden tener una menor respuesta a las señales negativas debido a una velocidad de procesamiento más lenta, lo que hace que vean las características faciales en los adultos jóvenes como más positivas que los adultos más jóvenes.​

Número de observadores

Las primeras impresiones se ven afectadas independientemente si la persona en cuestión está sola o con cualquier número de personas.​ Las experiencias conjuntas se procesan más globalmente (ver precedencia global), como en las culturas colectivistas. El procesamiento global enfatiza más las primeras impresiones porque la primera impresión colectiva tiende a permanecer estable en el tiempo. Las experiencias individuales tienden a facilitar el procesamiento local, lo que hace que el espectador tenga una visión más crítica del objetivo. Por lo tanto, es más probable que los individuos tengan primeras impresiones negativas que los grupos de dos o más espectadores del mismo objetivo. Al mismo tiempo, es más probable que los individuos experimenten una tendencia ascendente en el transcurso de una serie de impresiones.​

Al ver obras de arte en un experimento, los participantes en un contexto individual calificaron el arte en una secuencia de mejora significativamente más alta que cuando los objetivos se presentan en una secuencia en declive.​ Al ver el arte en un contexto conjunto, los participantes evaluaron la primera y la última pieza de manera similar en ambos tipos de secuencia. Basta con preparar a los espectadores para que se sientan como si estuvieran en contextos individuales o conjuntos o para que los procesen analíticamente o de forma holística fue suficiente para producir los mismos efectos de visualización.​

Influencias culturales

Individualismo contra colectivismo

Similar to the number of viewers present, collectivism versus individualism can influence impression formation.​ Collectivists are at ease as long as their impressions are largely in alignment with the larger group's impressions. When a collectivist wants to change his/her impression, he/she may be compelled to change the views of all group members.​ However, this could be challenging for collectivists, who tend to be less confrontational than individualists. Individualists are willing to change their own views at will and are generally more comfortable with uncertainty, which makes them naturally more willing to change their impressions.​

Influencia de la riqueza mediática

Research is mixed on whether national culture mediates the relationship between media richness and bias in impression formation. Some studies that manipulated media richness have found that information presented in text form yields similar impressions (measured by reported appraisal scores) among cultures,​ while other studies found that richer forms of information such as videos reduce cross-cultural bias more effectively.​ The latter findings support Media Richness Theory.​

El habla y sus acentos

Accents and unique speech patterns can influence how people are perceived by those to whom they are speaking. For example, when hypothetically interviewing an applicant with a Midwestern U.S. accent, Colombian accent, or French accent, Midwestern U.S. participants evaluated the U.S. accent as significantly more positive than the applicant with the French accent due to perceived similarity to themselves.​ The evaluation of the applicant with the Colombian accent did not, however, differ significantly from the other two. First impressions can be heavily influenced by a similarity-attraction hypothesis where others are immediately put into “similar" or “dissimilar” categories from the viewer and judged accordingly.​

Características físicas de la personalidad

Although populations from different cultures can be quick to view others as dissimilar, there are several first impression characteristics that are universal across cultures.​ When comparing trait impressions of faces among U.S. and the culturally isolated Tsimane' people of Bolivia, there was between-culture agreement when ascribing certain physical features to descriptive traits such as attractiveness, intelligence, health, and warmth.​ Both cultures also show a strong attractiveness halo when forming impressions, meaning that those seen as attractive were also rated as more competent, sociable, intelligent, and healthy.​

Apariencia física

Rostros y características

Physical appearance gives us clear clues as to a person's personality without him/her ever having to speak or move.​​​​ Women tend to be better than men at judging nonverbal behavior.​ After viewing pictures of people in a neutral position and in a self-chosen posed position, observers were accurate at judging the target's levels of extraversion, emotional stability, openness, self-esteem, and religiosity.​ The combined impression of physical characteristics, body posture, facial expression, and clothing choices lets observers form accurate images of a target's personality, so long as the person observed is presenting themselves genuinely.​​ However, there is some conflicting data in this field. Other evidence suggests that people sometimes rely too much on appearance cues over actual information.​​ When provided with descriptive information about a target, participants still rely on physical appearance cues when making judgments about others' personalities and capabilities. Participants struggle to look past physical appearance cues even when they know information contrary to their initial judgment.​ Physical cues are also used to make judgments about political candidates based on extremely brief exposures to their pictures.​ Perceived competence level of a candidate measured from first impressions of facial features can directly predict voting results.​

The “beautiful is good” effect is a very present phenomenon when dealing with first impressions of others.​ Targets who are attractive are rated more positively and as possessing more unique characteristics than those who are unattractive.​ Beauty is also found to be somewhat subjective so that even targets who are not universally attractive can receive the benefit of this effect if the observer is attracted to them.​

In a 2014 study, a group at the University of York reported that impressions of the traits of approachability, youthfulness/attractiveness and dominance can be formed from measurable characteristics such as the shape of and the spacing around the eyes, nose and mouth.​ it was found that first impressions of social traits, such as trustworthiness or dominance, are reliably perceived in faces. Physical facial features were objectively measured from feature positions and colours. A neural network was used to model the dimensions of approachability, youthful-attractiveness and dominance. 58% of the variance in raters’ impressions was accounted for by this linear model.​

Cosmética y confección

Cosmetic use is also an important cue for forming impressions, particularly of women. Those wearing heavy makeup are seen as significantly more feminine than those wearing moderate makeup or no makeup and those wearing heavy or moderate makeup are seen as more attractive than those wearing no makeup.​ While a woman wearing no makeup is perceived as being more moral than the other two conditions, there is no difference between experimental conditions when judging personality or personal temperament.​

First impression formation can be influenced by the use of cognitive short hands such as stereotypes and representative heuristics.​ When asked to rate the socioeconomic status (SES) and degree of interest in friendship with African American and Caucasian female models wearing either a K-Mart, Abercrombie & Fitch, or non-logoed sweatshirt, Caucasian models were rated more favorably than the African American models.​ Abercrombie & Fitch wearers were rated as higher SES than the other sweatshirts. Participants wanted to be friends with the Caucasian model most when she was wearing a plain sweatshirt and the African American model most when she was wearing either the plain or K-Mart sweatshirt. It is unclear why the plain sweatshirt was most associated with friendship, but the general results suggest that mismatching class and race reduced the model's friendship appeal.​

Contextos específicos

Internet

Online profiles and communication channels such as email provide fewer cues than in-person interactions, which makes targets more difficult to understand.​ When research participants were asked to evaluate a person's facial attractiveness and perceived ambition based on an online dating profile, amount of time permitted for processing and reporting an evaluation of the target produced a difference in impression formation.​ Spontaneous evaluations relied on physical attractiveness almost exclusively, whereas deliberate evaluations weighed both types of information. Although deliberate evaluations used the information provided on both physical attractiveness and ambition of each target, the particular impact of each kind of information appeared to depend on the consistency between the two. A significant effect of attractiveness on deliberate evaluations was found only when perceived ambition was consistent with the perceived level of attractiveness.​ The consistency found in profiles seemed to particularly influence deliberate evaluations.

In a study of online impressions, participants who were socially expressive and disclosed a lot about themselves both on their webpages and in person were better liked than those who were less open. Social expressivity includes liveliness in voice, smiling, etc.​

Citas y sexualidad

Upon seeing photographs of straight, gay, and bisexual people, participants correctly identified gay versus straight males and females at above-chance levels based solely on seeing a picture of their face, however, bisexual targets were only identified at chance. The findings suggest a straight-non straight dichotomy in the categorization of sexual orientation.​

The more time participants are allowed to make some judgment about a person, the more they will weigh information beyond physical appearance. Specific manipulations include identifying men as gay versus straight​ and people as trustworthy or not.​​ In a study of the interaction between ratings of people in speed dating and the form of media used to present them, impression accuracy in a speed dating task was not significantly different when a potential date was presented in person versus in a video. However, impressions of dates made via video were to be much more negative than those made in person. An additional study that looked at characterization of a romantic partner suggested that people are more likely to rely on “gut reactions” when meeting in person, but there isn't sufficient information for this kind of evaluation when viewing someone online.

Profesional

Non-verbal behaviors are particularly important to forming first impressions when meeting a business acquaintance.​ Specifically, components of social expressivity, such as smiling, eyebrow position, emotional expression, and eye contact are emphasized.​​​ Straightening one's posture, leaning in slightly, and giving a firm handshake promotes favorable impression formation in the American business context.​ Other impression management tactics in the business world include researching the organization and interviewers beforehand, preparing specific questions for the interviewer, showing confidence, and dressing appropriately.​

A qualitative review of previous literature looking at self-report data suggests that men and women use impression management tactics in the corporate world that are consistent with stereotypical gender roles when presenting themselves to others.​ This research proposes that women are put in a double bind where those who portray themselves as more communal and submissive are overlooked for leadership positions and women who try to utilize male tactics (such as being more aggressive) receive negative consequences for violating normative gender roles.​ To change this dynamic the authors suggest that managerial positions should be re-advertised to highlight the feminine qualities needed for a position and staff training should involve a segment accentuating gender issues in the office to make everyone aware of possible discrimination.​

Data collected from interviews with physicians distinguishes between first impressions and intuition and contributes to understanding the occurrence of gut feelings in the medical field.​ Gut feelings go beyond first impressions: Physicians expressed feeling doubtful about their initial impressions as they gathered more data from their patients. More experienced physicians reported more instances of gut feelings than those less experienced, but the quality of the intuition was related to the quality of feedback received during the data collection process in general. Emotional engagement enhanced learning just as it does in first impressions.​

Neurociencias

First impressions are formed within milliseconds of seeing a target. When intentionally forming a first impression, encoding relies on the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC).​ Readings from fMRIs of research participants show that processing of diagnostic information (e.g. distinguishing features) engaged the dmPFC more than processing neutral information.​

Participants generally formed more negative impressions of the faces that showed a negative emotion compared to neutral faces.​ Results suggest that the dmPFC and amygdala together play a large role in negative impression formation. When forming immediate impressions based on emotion, the stimulus can bypass the neo-cortex by way of the “amygdala hijack.”​

Familiaridad

Research indicates that people are efficient evaluators when forming impressions based on existing biases.​ The posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), amygdala, and the thalamus sort relevant versus irrelevant information according to these biases. The dmPFC is also involved in the impression formation process, especially with person-descriptive information.​

FMRI results show activation of the fusiform cortex, posterior cingulate gyrus, and amygdala when individuals are asked to identify previously seen faces that were encoded as either “friends” or “foes.”​ Additionally, the caudate and anterior cingulate cortex are more activated when looking at faces of “foes” versus “friends."​ This research suggests that quick first impressions of hostility or support from unknown people can lead to long-term effects on memory that will later be associated with that person.

Alcohol e impresiones

Alcohol consumption and belief of consumption influenced emotion detection in ten second clips.​ Participants who thought they had consumed an alcoholic beverage rated one facial expression (approximately 3% of the facial expressions they saw) more in each clip as happy compared to the control group. Thus, impression formation may be affected by even the perception of alcohol consumption.​

Diferencias interculturales

There appears to be cross-cultural similarities in brain responses to first impression formations. In a mock election both American and Japanese individuals voted for the candidate that elicited a stronger response in their bilateral amygdala than those who did not, regardless of the candidate's culture.​ Individuals also showed a stronger response to cultural outgroup faces than cultural ingroup faces because the amygdala is presumably more sensitive to novel stimuli.​ However, this finding was unrelated to actual voting decisions.​

Estabilidad

Once formed, first impressions tend to be stable. A review of the literature on the accuracy and impact of first impressions on rater-based assessments found that raters' first impressions are highly correlated with later scores, but it is unclear exactly why.​ One study tested stability by asking participants to form impressions people based purely on photographs. Participants' opinions of the people in photographs did not significantly differ after interacting with that person a month later.​ One potential reason for this stability is that one's first impressions could serve as a guide for his/her next steps, such as what questions are asked and how raters go about scoring. More research needs to be done on the stability of first impressions to fully understand how first impressions guide subsequent treatment, self-fulfilling prophecies, and the halo effect.​ Assessment tools can influence impressions too, for example if a question provides only a dichotomous "yes" or "no" response or if a rater uses a scale (ratio). Although this study was conducted with the intention of improving rating methods in medical education, the literature review was sufficiently broad enough to generalize.​

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