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m Retirando plantilla "traducción". Fue insertada por Usuario:Juan Miguel el 11 de nov de 2007 y su última edición en él fue el 09 de oct de 2008.; cambios triviales
Página reemplazada por «pipiiiiiiiiii».
Línea 1: Línea 1:
pipiiiiiiiiii
Este artículo muestra un esquema gramatical del [[Idioma pipil|idioma náhuat o pipil]], una lengua perteneciente a la [[lenguas utoaztecas|familia lingüística utoazteca]], emparentada con el [[náhuatl]] clásico. El pipil es una [[lengua muerta|lengua amenazada]] y es hablada actualmente por los [[pipiles]] de [[El Salvador]].
== Sonidos ==
=== Fonemas básicos y acentos ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ [[Vocal]]es básicas
!
! Vocales anteriores
! Vocales posteriores
|-
! [[Vocal fuerte|Fuerte]]
| '''i'''
|rowspan="2"|'''u'''
|-
! [[Vocal media|Media]]
| '''e'''
|-
! [[Vocal débil|Débil]]
|colspan="2"|'''a'''
|}

* Las Realizaciónes de las [[vocales anteriores]] oscilan entre {{IPA|[o]}} y {{IPA|[u]}}, pero la vocal [[vocal fuerte|superior]] son predominante [[alófona]]s .
* Históricamente hubo [[phonemic]] [[vowel length]] en Nahuat, que eran, palabras que podrían tener diferentes sinificados dependiendo en si de cada una de las vocales si eran largas o cortas. Esa distinción puede estar extinta para los hablantes de hoy en día.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonantes básicas
!
! [[Bilabial]]
! [[Consonate alveolar|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal]]
! [[Consonante velar|Velar]]
! [[Labiovelar]]
! [[Consonate glotal|Glottal]]
|-
! [[Plosiva]]s
| '''p'''
| '''t'''
|
| '''k''' {{IPA|[k], [g], [ɣ]}}
| '''kw'''
|
|-
! [[Consonante africativa|Africativas]]
|
| '''tz''' {{IPA|[ts]}}
| '''ch''' {{IPA|[tʃ]}}
|
|
|
|-
! [[Fricativa]]s
|
| '''s'''
| '''sh''' {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|
|
| '''j''' {{IPA|[h]}}
|-
! [[Consonante nasal|Nasales]]
| '''m'''
| '''n''' {{IPA|[n], [ŋ], [m], [ɲ]}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Liquidas]]
|
| '''l'''
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Semivocal]]es
|
|
| '''y'''
|
| '''w''' {{IPA|[(ɣ)w]}}
|
|-

|}

Las [[expresión|expresiones]] [[alofona]]s de /k/, {{IPA|[g]}} e {{IPA|[ɣ]}}, son comunes por su distribución y a la vez son variaciónes [[dialecto|dialectal]] y [[reglas fonológica]]s (y sus excepciónes).

El fonéma /n/ tiene varios alofonos, como sigue:

{|
|
* When followed by a vowel it is usually '''alveolar'''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
'''''n'''aja'' 'I, me', ''i'''n'''i'' 'this', '''''n'''u'''n'''an'' 'my mother' {{IPA|[n]}}
|-
|
* When followed by a plosive or affricate consonant its [[place of articulation]] '''assimilates'''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
''se'''n'''pa'' {{IPA|[m]}} 'once, again', ''Ke'''n''' tinemi?'' 'How are you?' {{IPA|[n]}}, ''i'''n'''chan'' {{IPA|[ɲ]}} 'at their house', ''te'''n'''kal'' 'door, patio' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
|-
|
* Preceding other consonants or a pause, the pronunciation of ''n'' is most often '''velar''' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
''Ka'''n''' nemi?'' 'Where is (he/she/it)?', ''a'''n'''yawit'' 'you (pl.) are going';

''Ini ne apa'''n''''' 'This is the river', ''Shimutalika'''n'''!'' 'Sit down!' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
|-
|
* In word-final position preceding a vowel, it is also '''velar''' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
''Ke'''n''' ajsik?'' 'How did he/she arrive?', ''wa'''n''' ini'' 'and this' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
|-
|
* '''Velar''' {{IPA|[ŋ]}} occurs intervocalically in some words; this may be represented in writing by ''nh''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
''nema'''nh'''a'' 'later, straight away', ''ki'''nh'''ita'' 'sees them', ''te'''nh'''at'' 'river bank' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
|}

Most words are [[stress (linguistics)|stressed]] on the second to last [[syllable]]. Some are stressed on the last syllable: these include a few lexical [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]] such as ''tenk'''a'''l'' 'door, patio' (from ''ten'' 'mouth' and ''kal'' 'house'), certain [[prefix]]ed or [[reduplication|reduplicated]] [[monosyllable]]s such as (optionally) ''kajk'''a'''l'' 'houses', and many [[diminutive]]s in ''-tzin'' or ''-chin''. There are also words in these categories with regular penultimate stress.

=== Phonotactics ===
{|
|
* Las [[sílaba]]s pueden tener cualquier forma permitida por la fórmula (C)V(C) y las palabras pueden tener cualquier número de tales sílabas

| style="background:#efefef;" |
''kal'' 'casa', ''at'' 'agua', ''ne'' 'ahí', ''nu-ish'' 'mi ojo', ''a-pan'' 'río', ''mis-tun'' 'gato', ''kat-ka'' 'era', ''uj-ti'' 'camino', ''kwa-wit'' 'árbol, madera, vara', ''nu-kwaj-kwach'' 'mis ropas', ''metz-ti'' 'luna', ''nech-kwa'' 'él/ella me come', ''tzak-tuk'' 'cerrado', ''shik-tzuj-tzun-ta-mej-ti-kan'' '¡afilen las puntas!'
|-
|
* La mayoría de [[consonante]]s en náhuat puede aparecer en cualquier posición, pero ''m'' y ''kw'' no pueden hacerlo al final de una sílaba (o palabra); tampoco exostem palabras que finalicen en ''p''. Si ''m'' o ''kw'' aparecen al final de una sílaba, éstas se convierten en ''n'' y ''k'' respectivamente (ver las pronunciaciones en las tablas de arriba).
| style="background:#efefef;" |
''teku'''m'''a-t'' 'jícara' pero ''nu-teku'''n''''' 'mi jícara', ''ki-tza'''kw'''a'' 'él/ella lo cierra' pero ''tza'''k'''-tuk'' 'cerrado'
|-
|
* ''J'' tiene una distribución limitada: nunca puede aparecer después de otra consonante y raramente lo hace al principio de una palabra. ''J'', al final de una palabra, tiene una pronunciación débil y suele desaparecer totalmente.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
''naja'' 'Yo, me', ''ujti'' 'camino', ''nikwaj'' 'yo lo comí', ''shushukna(j)'' 'verde'
|}

==== Semivocales secundarias ====
{|
|width="50%"|
Cuando dos fonemas vocálicos están juntos en una misma palabra, se suele interponer una {{IPA|[j]}} (el sonido ''y'') entre ellos (o [w] si la primera vocal es ''u''). Esto es común cuando la primera de las dos vocales está [[acento|acentuada]].
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''miak'' 'mucho' → {{IPA|['mijak]}}
* *''shikwa + -a'' → ''shikwaya'' '¡cómelo!'
* ''se-uk'' (de *''se + -uk'') 'otro' → {{IPA|['sejuk]}}
* ''nu-ika-w'' 'mi hermano menor' → {{IPA|[nu'wigaw]}}
|-
|
En otros casos, si /i/ o /e/ preceden a otra vocal, se sustituyen a menudo por {{IPA|[j]}}.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''ki-pia-ya'' 'él ya lo tiene' → {{IPA|[gi'pjaja]}}
* ''seujti'' (de *''se + ujti'') 'una vez' → {{IPA|['sjuhti]}}
|-
|
Pero esta {{IPA|[j]}} suele omitirse si aparece después de ''sh'' o ''ch''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''shiawa!'' (por *''shi-yaw-a'') '¡vete ya!' → {{IPA|['ʃ(j)awa]}}
* ''shi-k-chia-kan!'' '¡esperen! → {{IPA|[ʃik'tʃ(j)akaŋ] / [-gaŋ]}}
|-
|
Después de ''n'' alveolar o /k/ = {{IPA|[g]}}, {{IPA|[j]}} se combina a menudo para producir {{IPA|[ɲ]}} (parecida a la ''ñ'' española) o /y/ {{IPA|[j]}}, respectivamente.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''niajki'' (por*''ni-yaj-ki'') 'yo fui' → {{IPA|['njahki] / ['ɲahki]}}
* ''kielkawa'' '´él/ella olvida' → {{IPA|[gjel'kawa] / [jel'kawa]}}
|}

=== Reduplicación ===
La [[reduplicación]] es un proceso morfológico caracterizado en términos fonológicos y que se emplea en varias instancias del sistema gramatical pipil. La reduplicación náhuat toma la forma de una repetición de la primera sílaba de una palabra (de hecho, es solo la parte (C)V la que se repite): así, por ejemplo, la reduplicación de ''kunet'' 'niño' es ''ku-kunet'' 'niños', y un derivado de la raíz ''petz-'' 'liso' es ''pe-petz-ka'' 'una especie de pez pequeño y plateado (pepesca en el español local)'.

Otra variedad más productiva de reduplicación involucra la adición de una ''j'' luego de la reduplicación. Por ejemplo: ''ku-j-kunet'' 'niños', ''pe-j-petz-naj'' plural de ''petz-naj'' 'liso, desnudo'. En términos generales, la reduplicación simple (sin ''j'') es gobernada por criterios léxicos; la reduplicación con ''j'', por el contrario, es utilizada por reglas gramaticales que:

{|
|-
|
* generan nombres y adjetivos plurales de singulares
| style="background:#efefef;" |
''tamal'' 'tortilla' → ''taj-tamal'' 'tortillas'

''mistun'' 'gato' → ''mij-mistun'' 'gatos'

''kal'' 'casa' → ''kaj-kal'' 'casas'

''apan'' 'río' → ''aj-apan'' 'ríos'
|-
|
* producen verbos iterativos de verbos no iterativos
| style="background:#efefef;" |
''taketza'' 'él/ella habla' → ''taj-taketza'' 'él/ella conversa'

''nemi'' 'él/ella está (en algún lugar)' → ''nej-nemi'' 'él/ella camina'

''paki'' 'él/ella ríe' → ''paj-paki'' 'él/ella está feliz'

''ki-ajwa'' 'él/ella lo regaña' → ''ki-aj-ajwa'' 'él/ella lo reprende'
|}

== Noun phrase ==
=== Determiners and quantifiers ===
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Common determiners and quantifiers
|-
! align="center"|Some determiners
! colspan=2 align="center"|Some quantifiers
|-
|
* ''ne'' 'el, la, los, las'
* ''se'' 'un, una'
* ''ini'' 'este, esta'
* ''uni'' 'ese, esa'
|
* ''se(j)se'' 'cada'
* ''miak'' 'muchos'
* ''ch(i)upi'' 'few, a few'
* ''muchi'' 'todo, todos'
|
* ''se'' 'uno'
* ''ume'' 'dos'
* ''yey'' 'tres'
* ''nawi'' 'cuatro'
* ''makwil'' 'cinco'
|}
The [[determiner]]s (except for ''ne'') and [[quantifier]]s may be used pronominally, i.e. without a noun head, or preceding the noun they determine or quantify, e.g. ''ne takat'' 'the man', ''ini techan'' 'this village', ''miak kal'' 'many houses', ''ume siwat'' 'two women'.

=== Posesión ===

Los [[prefijos]] que se muestran a continuación se anteponen a los nombres para expresar a quién "pertenecen"; por ejemplo: ''nu-yak'' 'mi nariz', ''i-eltiw'' 'su hermana', ''tu-mistun'' 'nuestro gato', ''mu-techan'' 'tu pueblo'.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Índices posesivos
|-
! align="center"|Posesor individual
! align="center"|Posesor plural
|-
|
''nu-'' 'mi'

''mu-'' 'tu'

''i-'' 'su'
|
''tu-'' 'nuestro'

''anmu-'' 'sus (2ª persona)'

''in-'' 'sus (3ª persona)'
|}

Algunos nombres exigen siempre un posesor, por lo que es incorrecto en náhuat decir solamente *''se yak'' 'una nariz' o *''ne eltiw'' 'la hermana': en lugar de eso, uno debe decir ''se iyak'' 'una su-nariz', ''ne nueltiw'' 'la mi-hermana' o cualquier otra forma posesiva que se ajuste mejor al contexto. Los nombres que siguen esta norma son, en su mayoría, aquellos que expresan ya sea partes del cuerpo o miembros de la familia.

Otros nombres pueden aparecer con un posesor o sin él. Algunos de estos tienen dos formas distintas: la forma absoluta, que se utiliza sin el prefijo posesivo, y la forma construida, que se utiliza con el prefijo posesivo. Estos 'estados' pueden ser indicados por diferentes sufijos; por ejemplo: ''ne kune-t'' 'el niño' → ''ne nu-kune-w'' 'mi niño'; ''ne sin-ti'' 'el maíz' → ''ne nu-sin'' 'mi maíz'; ''ne esti'' 'la sangre' → ''ne nu-es-yu'' 'mi sangre'. Cuando ambos estados del nombre tienen un marcador-cero (como ''mistun'' y ''techan''), diremos que el nombre es 'invariable'.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Absolute and construct suffixes
|-
! align="center"|
! align="center"|Absoluto
! align="center"|Construido
|-
! Singular
|
* ''-t''
* ''-ti''
* cero
|
* ''-w''
* cero
|-
! Plural
|
* ''-met''
* ''-ket''
* cero
|
* ''-wan''
* cero
|}

The [[possession (linguistics)|possessive]] indices tell us the [[grammatical person|person]] and [[grammatical number|number]] of the possessor, which may be specified by a [[noun phrase]] following the construct noun. When that happens the construct will normally have the third-person index, e.g. ''ne i-mistun ne piltzin'' 'the boy's cat' (literally: 'his-cat the boy').

There is an alternative way to express this, if the noun is alienable, using the [[preposition]] ''pal'' or the [[relational (grammar)|relational]] ''ipal'': ''ne mistun pal ne piltzin'' ('the cat of the boy'). Even with an [[inalienable]] possession, it is possible to say ''ne inan pal ne piltzin'' ('the his-mother of the boy').

=== The plural ===
Nouns may be made [[plural]] by two different procedures:

{|
|
through [[reduplication]] (see above)
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''mistun'' 'cat' → '''''mij'''-mistun'' 'cats'
|-
|
using a plural [[suffix]] (-''met'', ''-ket'')
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''taka-t'' 'man' → ''taka-'''met''''' 'men'
|}

For constructs:

{|
|
There is a special construct plural suffix, ''-wan'', used with certain nouns denoting family relations and similarly intimate 'possessions'.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''nu-elti-w'' 'my sister' → ''nu-elti-'''wan''''' 'my sisters'
* ''nu-kunpa'' 'my comrade or friend' → ''nu-kunpa'''wan''''' 'my comrades or friends'
* ''nu-pal'' 'mine' → ''nu-pal-'''wan''''' 'my possessions'
|-
|
Otherwise the reduplicated form of the singular construct is used.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''nu-kune-w'' 'my child' → ''nu-'''kuj'''-kune-w'' 'my children'
* ''nu-kwach'' 'my cloth'' → 'nu-'''kwaj'''-kwach'' 'my clothes'
|-
|
Sometimes the possessive prefix is reduplicated instead.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''nu-ish'' 'my eye' → '''''nuj'''-nu-ish'' 'my eyes'
* ''i-kshi'' 'his foot' → '''''ij'''-i-kshi'' 'his feet'
|}

Some word that may accompany a noun in the noun phrase, such as the [[determiners]] ''ne'', ''ini'', ''uni'', are invariable for [[grammatical number|number]], e.g. ''uni mistun'' 'that cat', ''uni mijmistun'' 'those cats'. On the other hand, nouns accompanied by a [[quantifier]] that is plural in meaning need not themselves be pluralized [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]], e.g. ''ume mistun'' 'two cats'.

=== Adjectives ===

[[Adjective]]s used attributively can precede or follow the noun, e.g. ''se selek iswat'' or ''se iswat selek'' 'a tender leaf' (''selek'' 'tender, fresh, green', ''iswat'' 'leaf').

There is considerable variation regarding how to mark plural number in [[noun phrase]]s containing an adjective. As long as some element or other in the noun phrase marks the phrase as plural, it seems not to matter which one, or even how many elements are (redundantly) pluralized, though there some speakers seem to indicate a preference for (1) marking plurality in the first possible component, and (2) avoiding redundancy, thus ''chijchiltik tzaput'' or ''tzajtzaput chiltik'', but ''ume chiltik tzaput'' or ''ume tzaput chiltik''.

=== Pronouns and adverbs ===
No [[noun phrase]] is marked for [[grammatical case|case]], and this is just as true of the [[pronoun]]s, which have each a single form that can perform any function in the sentence.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Personal pronouns
|-
! align="center"|Singular
! align="center"|Plural
|-
|
''naja'' 'yo'

''taja'' 'tu'

''yaja'' 'el, ella'
|
''tejemet'' 'nosotros'

''anmejemet'' 'vosotros, ustedes'

''yejemet'' 'ellos'
|}

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Other pronouns and deictic adverbs
|-
!
! align="center"|Pronouns
! align="center"|Place adverbs
! align="center"|Other adverbs
|-
! align="center"|Demonstrative
|
* ''ini, yajini'' 'este'
* ''uni, yajuni'' 'ese'
* ''yaja ne'' 'aquel(mucha distancia)'
|
* ''nikan'' 'aquí'
* ''unkan'' 'allí'
* ''ne'' 'alla (mucha distancia)'
|
* ''ijkini'' 'como este'
* ''ijkiuni'' 'como aquel'
* ''ash(k)an'' 'ahora, hoy'
* ''kwakuni'' 'entonces'
* ''nemanha'' 'tarde, después'
|-
! align="center"|Interrogative
|
* ''ká'' 'quien?'
* ''tey/tay'' 'que?'
* ''katiawel?'' 'cual?'
|
* ''kan?'' 'donde?'
|
* ''ken?'' 'como? como que?'
* ''keman?'' 'cuando?'
|-
! align="center"|Indefinite
|
* ''aka'' 'alguien'
* ''inte aka'' 'nadie'
* ''tatka'' 'algo, cualquier cosa, alguna cosa'
* ''inte tatka'' 'nada'
|
* ''kanaj'' 'alguna parte, en otra parte'
* ''inte kanaj'' 'en ninguna parte, por ninguna parte'
* ''nujme'' 'por todas partes, por donde quiera'
|
* ''inte keman'' 'nunca'
|}

=== Case, prepositions and relationals ===

[[Noun phrase]]s in core grammatical functions are not marked for [[grammatical case|case]]. To specify other roles, a [[preposition]] or a [[relational (grammar)|relational]] may precede a noun phrase. The main prepositions are:

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Prepositions
| '''ka'''
| 'to, at (etc.)'
|
* ''ka tiupan'' 'to the church'
* ''ka tayua'' 'at night'
|-
| '''tik'''
| 'in, to, from (etc.)'
|
* ''tik ne techan'' 'in/to/from the village'
* ''tik Nawat'' 'in Nawat'
|-
| '''pak'''
| 'on'
|
* ''pak ne metat'' 'on the grinding stone'
|-
| '''tech'''
| 'at, by, near, to'
|
* ''tech ne apan'' 'by the river'
* ''tech ne siwat'' 'to the woman'
|-
| '''wan'''
| 'with (etc.)'
|
* ''wan ne siwat'' 'with the woman'
|-
| '''chan'''
| '' 'chez' ''
|
* ''chan ne siwat'' 'at/to/from the woman's house'
|-
| '''pal'''
| 'of, for'
|
* ''pal nunan'' 'for my mother'
* ''se siwat pal nutechan'' 'a woman from my village'
|}

All the above prepositions derive [[diachronic]]ally from relationals. In some cases the preposition merely represents an abbreviation of the relational by omitting the ''i-'' prefix.

[[relational (grammar)|Relationals]] are quasi-nouns expressing some relationship (sometimes spatial, but not always) to their possessive complement. For example, ''nu-jpak'', meaning 'on or over me', consists of the relational ''(i)jpak'' conveying 'position above' with a first person singular possessor. Some relationals are shown in third-person-singular forms in the following table:

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
! colspan="2" align="center"|Some relationals
|-
! align="center"|Spatial relations
! align="center"|Other relations
|-
|
* ''ijtik'' 'in, inside'
* ''ijpak'' 'on, over'
* ''itan'' 'under'
* ''ishpan'' 'in front of'
* ''ipan'' 'behind'
* ''itech'' 'near, alongside'
|
* ''iwan'' 'with'
* ''ichan'' 'at/to/from the house of'
* ''ipal'' 'for, belonging to'
* ''ipanpa'' 'on account of, instead of'
|}

== Morfología básica del verbo ==
=== Subject and object indices ===

The following table shows the [[prefix]]es that serve to index the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] and [[object (grammar)|object]], respectively. (Note that in the [[subjunctive]] [[mood (grammar)|mood]] the second-person subject prefix takes the special form ''shi-''.)

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Subject and object indices
|-
! align="center"|Number
! align="center"|Person
! align="center"|Subject

prefixes
! align="center"|Object

prefixes
|-
! rowspan=3 | Singular
! 1
| ''ni-''
| ''nech-''
|-
! 2
| ''ti-, shi-''
| ''metz-''
|-
! 3
| ''-''
| ''ki- / -k-''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
! 1
| ''ti-''
| ''tech-''
|-
! 2
| ''an(h)-, shi-''
| ''metzin(h)-''
|-
! 3
| ''-''
| ''kin(h)-''
|}

Verbs with a plural subject take a plural suffix: basically ''-t'' except in the subjunctive when ''-kan'' is used:

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Subject person and number indices
|-
!
!
! colspan=2 align="center"|Indicative
! colspan=2 align="center"|Subjunctive
|-
! align="center"|Number
! align="center"|Person
! align="center"|Prefix
! align="center"|Suffix
! align="center"|Prefix
! align="center"|Suffix
|-
! rowspan=3 | Singular
! 1
| ''ni-''
| rowspan=3 | ''-''
| ''ni-''
| rowspan=3 | ''-''
|-
! 2
| ''ti-''
| ''shi-''
|-
! 3
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
! 1
| ''ti-''
| rowspan=3 | '''''-t'''''
| ''ti-''
| rowspan=3 | '''''-kan'''''
|-
! 2
| ''an-''
| ''shi-''
|-
! 3
| ''-''
| ''-''
|}

[[transitive verb|Transitive]] verbs take, in addition, an object prefix after the subject prefix. The third-singular object prefix ''ki-'' is shortened to ''-k-'' when preceded by any of the subject prefixes ''ni-'', ''ti-'' or ''shi-''. This is illustrated here by the present ([[indicative]]) and subjunctive of an intransitive verb (''panu'' 'pass') and a transitive verb with a third-person-singular object (''-pia'' 'have'):

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Sample verbs
|-
!
!
! colspan=2 align="center"|''panu'' (intransitive)
! colspan=2 align="center"|''-pia'' (transitive)
|-
! align="center"|Number
! align="center"|Person
! align="center"|Present
! align="center"|Subjunctive
! align="center"|Present
! align="center"|Subjunctive
|-
! rowspan=3 | Singular
! 1
| '''''ni'''panu''
| ''ma '''ni'''panu''
| '''''nik'''pia''
| ''ma '''nik'''pia''
|-
! 2
| '''''ti'''panu''
| ''ma '''shi'''panu''
| '''''tik'''pia''
| ''ma '''shik'''pia''
|-
! 3
| ''panu''
| ''ma panu''
| '''''ki'''pia''
| ''ma '''ki'''pia''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
! 1
| '''''ti'''panu'''t'''''
| ''ma '''ti'''panu'''kan'''''
| '''''tik'''pia'''t'''''
| ''ma '''tik'''pia'''kan'''''
|-
! 2
| '''''an'''panu'''t'''''
| ''ma '''shi'''panu'''kan'''''
| '''''anki'''pia'''t'''''
| ''ma '''shik'''pia'''kan'''''
|-
! 3
| ''panu'''t'''''
| ''ma panu'''kan'''''
| '''''ki'''pia'''t'''''
| ''ma '''ki'''pia'''kan'''''
|}

A few examples follow:

{|
|
Intransitive:
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Nuteku '''tekiti''' tik ne mil.'' 'My father works in the cornfield.'
* ''Taika '''tichuka'''?'' 'Why are you crying?'
* ''Ne kujkunet '''kuchit'''.'' 'The children are sleeping.'
|-
|
Third-person-singular object:
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''(Naja) '''nikpia''' se tiltik mistun.'' 'I have a black cat.'
* ''(Tejemet) '''tiktemuat''' kwawit tik ne kujtan.'' 'We are looking for wood in the forest.'
|-
|
Non-third-person-singular object:
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Taika '''tinechtemua'''?'' 'Why are you looking for me?'
* ''(Naja) '''nikinnutza''' ne kujkunet.'' 'I am calling the children.'
|-
|
Transitive with third-person (zero-prefix) subject:
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Nuteku '''kipia''' chiupi tumin.'' 'My father has some money.'
* ''Te '''nechkakit''' ne kujkunet.'' 'The children cannot (do not) hear me.'
|}

=== Tenses ===
[[tense (grammar)|Tenses]] (so called for convenience although they include [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] or [[grammatical mood|mood]] categories) are characterized by distinct [[suffixes]]. The plural suffix ''-t'' combines with each tense suffix to give us plural tense endings, also shown here.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Tense endings
|-
! align="center"|
! align="center"|Singular ending
! align="center"|Plural ending
|-
! Present
| ''-''
| ''-t''
|-
! Past
| ''-ki, -k, -, -j''
| ''-ket''
|-
! Perfect
| ''-tuk''
| ''-tiwit''
|-
! Future
| ''-s''
| ''-sket''
|-
! Conditional
| ''-skia''
| ''-skiat''
|-
! Perfect Conditional
| ''-tuskia''
| ''-tuskiat''
|-
! Imperfect/Pluperfect
| ''-tuya''
| ''-tuyat''
|-
! Subjunctive/Imperative
| ''-''
| ''-kan''
|-
! Participle
| colspan=2 | ''-tuk''
|}

{|
|
The present (despite its name), [[perfect aspect|perfect]] and [[subjunctive]] are not time-specific, but may refer to events before, at or later than the time of speaking as determined by the context. They express an ongoing or habitual, completed and potential action or state, respectively.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* '''Present:''' ''Nemik se takat munamiktijtuk kipiatuya ne isiwaw, wan inte kimati katka ka '''kisa''' ka tayua.'' 'There was a married man who had a wife, and didn't know that she ''used to go out'' at night.'
* '''Perfect:''' ''Yaja pejki kikwa ne tortaj '''kimakatuk''' inan.'' 'He started to eat the bun his mother ''had given'' him.'
* '''Subjunctive:''' ''Kilwij '''ma walmukwepa'''.'' 'He told her to come back (or: ''that she should come back'').'
|-
|
The [[imperative]] only differs from the subjunctive by the absence of the [[grammatical particle|particle]] ''ma''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* '''Subjunctive:''' ''Yawi metzilwia '''ma shimutali'''.'' 'She will tell you ''to sit down''.'
* '''Imperative:''' '''''Shikalaki''' wan '''shimutali'''!'' '' 'Come in'' and ''sit down''!'
|-
|
The [[participle]] acts like a noun or adjective: it does not take object prefixes and is pluralized by reduplication rather than suffixation.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Nikpia se kumit '''tentuk''' wan et.'' 'I have a pot ''full'' of beans.'
* ''Nikpia yey kumit '''(tej)tentuk''' wan et.'' 'I have three pots ''full'' of beans.'
|}

=== Conjugation classes ===

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Regular conjugation classes
|-
! align="center"|
! align="center"|Present
! align="center"|Past
! align="center"|Perfect
! align="center"|Subjunctive
|-
! I
| ''kuch'''i''''' 'sleep'
| ''kuch'''ki'''''
| ''kuch'''tuk'''''
| ''ma kuch'''i'''''
|-
! II
| ''panu'' 'pass'
| ''panu'''k'''''
| ''panu'''tuk'''''
| ''ma panu''
|-
! III
| ''tajtan'''i''''' 'ask'
| ''tajtan''
| ''tajtan'''tuk'''''
| ''ma tajtan'''i'''''
|-
! IV
| ''mutalu'''a''''' 'run'
| ''mutalu'''j'''''
| ''mutalu'''jtuk'''''
| ''ma mutalu''
|}

The verbs classified as Class I in this table end in ''a'' or ''i'' in the present and subjunctive, but that vowel is lost in the past (which ends in ''-ki'' in this class) and in the perfect (all perfects are in ''-tuk''). Class II verbs, which end in ''a'', ''i'' or ''u'', retain this in all forms, and form their past in ''-k''. Class III differs from Class I only in that there is no past suffix at all, only the bare stem. Class IV verbs end in ''-ia'' or ''-ua'' in the present, but lose their final ''a'' in all the other tenses (including the subjunctive), and add a ''j'' in the past and perfect.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Mutating Class I verbs
! align="center"|Present
! align="center"|Past
! align="center"|Perfect
! align="center"|Subjunctive
|-
| ''pe'''w-a''''' 'begin'
| ''pe'''j-ki'''''
| ''pe'''j-tuk'''''
| ''ma pe'''w-a'''''
|-
| ''-ina'''y-a''''' 'hide'
| ''-ina'''sh-ki'''''
| ''-ina'''sh-tuk'''''
| ''ma -ina'''y-a'''''
|-
| ''-ku'''-a''''' 'buy'
| ''-ku'''j-ki'''''
| ''-ku'''j-tuk'''''
| ''ma -ku'''-a'''''
|-
| ''-pi'''-a''''' 'have'
| ''-pi'''sh-ki'''''
| ''-pi'''sh-tuk'''''
| ''ma -pi'''-a'''''
|}

Class I includes a sub-class of mutating stems which end in the present and subjunctive in ''-wa'', ''-ua'', ''-ya'' or ''-ia''. These change to ''-j-'', ''-uj-'', ''-sh-'' and ''-ish-'', respectively, in the past and perfect.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Irregular verbs
! align="center"|Present
! align="center"|Past
! align="center"|Perfect
! align="center"|Subjunctive
|-
| ''yaw(i)'' 'go'
| ''yajki''
| ''yajtuk''
| ''ma yaw(i)''
|-
| ''witz'' 'come'
| ''walaj''
| ''walajtuk''
| ''ma wiki''
|-
| ''-kwa'' 'eat'
| ''-kwaj''
| ''-kwajtuk''
| ''ma -kwa''
|-
| ''-kwi'' 'take'
| ''-kwij''
| ''-kwijtuk''
| ''ma -kwi''
|}

There are very few truly irregular verbs. The present and subjunctive of ''yawi'' 'go' and ''witz'' 'come' are given in full here:

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
!
!
! colspan=3 align="center"|''yawi'' 'go'
! colspan=3 align="center"|''witz'' 'come'
|-
! align="center"|
! align="center"|
! align="center"|Present
! align="center"|Subjunctive
! align="center"|Past
! align="center"|Present
! align="center"|Subjunctive
! align="center"|Past
|-
! rowspan=3 | Singular
! 1
| ''niyaw''
| ''ma niyaw''
| ''niajki''
| ''niwitz''
| ''ma niwiki''
| ''niwalaj''
|-
! 2
| ''tiyaw''
| ''ma shu''
| ''tiajki''
| ''tiwitz''
| ''ma shiwi''
| ''tiwalaj''
|-
! 3
| ''yawi''
| ''ma yawi''
| ''yajki''
| ''witz''
| ''ma wiki''
| ''walaj''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
! 1
| ''tiawit''
| ''ma tiawit''
| ''tiajket''
| ''tiwitzet''
| ''ma tiwikikan''
| ''tiwalajket''
|-
! 2
| ''anyawit''
| ''ma shumet / sh(i)akan''
| ''anyajket''
| ''anwitzet''
| ''ma shiwimet / shiwikan''
| ''anwalajket''
|-
! 3
| ''yawit''
| ''ma yawit''
| ''yajket''
| ''witzet''
| ''ma wikikan''
| ''walajket''
|}

=== Directional prefix ===

The [[directional]] [[prefix]] ''wal-'' 'towards the speaker' follows subject indices but precedes object indices (in transitive verbs) except for ''ki-''. It has the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] peculiarity that when preceded by ''ni-'', ''ti-'', ''shi-'' or ''ki-'' both ''i'' and ''w'' are omitted, leaving ''nal-'', ''tal-'', ''shal-'' and ''kal-''. When ''ni-/ti-/shi-'', ''ki-'' and ''wal-'' would all come together, the ''ki-'' component disappears altogether, so that ''nal-'', ''tal-'' and ''shal-'' do double duty as transitive (= ''ni- + ki- + wal-'', etc.) markers as well as intransitive (= ''ni- + wal-'', etc.) ones. The plural object marker ''kin-'' is split in two when combined with ''wal-''. The following examples illustrate.

{| class=wikitable style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
| ''kiski'' 'went/came out'
| '''''wal'''kiski'' 'came out (towards me)'
|-
| ''nitemuk'' 'I went down'
| ''n'''al'''temuk'' 'I came down (here)'
|-
| ''kiwikak'' 'he took (it)'
| ''k'''al'''wikak'' 'he brought (it)'
|-
| ''nikwikak'' 'I took (it)'
| ''n'''al'''wikak'' 'I brought (it)'
|-
| ''kinnutzki'' 'he called them'
| ''k'''al'''innutzki'' 'he called them here'
|-
| ''nikinnutzki'' 'I called them'
| ''n'''al'''innutzki'' 'I called them here'
|}

== Syntax ==
=== Non-verbal predicates ===

{|
|width="50%"|
Non-verbal phrases may be employed as predicates, with no verbal element at all in the sentence.
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Ini '''Carlos'''.'' 'This ''is Carlos''.'
* ''Carlos '''tumak'''.'' 'Carlos ''is fat''.'
* ''Yejemet '''tuj-tumak'''.'' 'They ''are fat''.'
|-
|
Non-verbal predicates do not have most of the morphological categories of verbs (such as tense), but some of them do take the subject indices. As usual there is no prefix for third-person subjects, hence ''Ini Carlos''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Naja '''ni-Carlos'''.'' 'I ''am Carlos''.'
* ''Taja '''ti-tumak'''.'' 'You (sg.) ''are fat''.'
* ''Tejemet '''ti-tuj-tumak'''.'' 'We ''are fat''.'
|-
|
Subjunctive non-verbal predicates are possible.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* '''''Ma ijkia'''!'' '' 'Let it be so''!'
* ''Naja niknekiskia '''ma nupal'''.'' 'I wish ''it were mine''.'
|-
|
Non-verbal predicates may be followed (like verbal ones) by an invariable ''katka'' which establishes a past time-frame. In a non-verbal context ''katka'' can thus be translated as ''was'' or ''were''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Naja '''ni-tumak katka'''.'' 'I ''was fat / used to be fat''.'
|}

=== Intransitive and transitive ===
Most Nawat verbs belong clearly to one of two major formal types: intransitive or transitive.

Here, [[intransitive]] verbs are understood to be those which cannot have an [[object (grammar)|object]] and corresponding object prefixes, while [[transitive]] verbs are those which must have an object and object prefixes. Neither [[subject (grammar)|subject]] nor object noun phrases need be present in the sentence, but whether explicit or implicit, the corresponding subject and object indices must. (This statement rests on the convention of considering the index for a third-person subject to take the form of 'zero'.)

Some of the most common intransitive and transitive Nawat verbs are given below:

{| cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ '''''Some common Nawat verbs (by transitivity and conjugation class)'''''
| colspan=6 | '''Intransitive:'''
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''chuka (II)'''
| cry
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''ina (II)'''
| say
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''kalaki (III)'''
| enter
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''kisa (I)'''
| go/come out
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''kuchi (I)'''
| sleep
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''miki (II)'''
| die
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''naka (II)'''
| stay
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''nemi (II)'''
| be (in a place or state), exist
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''nesi (II)'''
| be seen, be born
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''paki (II)'''
| be happy, laugh
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''panu (II)'''
| pass
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''pewa (I)'''
| begin
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''taketza (I)'''
| talk
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''takwika (II)'''
| sing
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''tami (II)'''
| end
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''tekiti (I)'''
| work
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''temu (II)'''
| go down
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''chuka (II)'''
| cry
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''weli (II)'''
| be able, know (how to)
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''witz (irr.)'''
| come
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''yawi (irr.)'''
| go
|-
| colspan=6 | '''Transitive:'''
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-chia (I)'''
| wait (for)
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-chiwa (I)'''
| make, do
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-ilpia (IV)'''
| tie
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-ilwia (IV)'''
| tell (someone)
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-ishtia (IV)'''
| take out
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-ita (II)'''
| see
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-kaki (II, IV)'''
| hear, listen to
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-kua (I)'''
| buy
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-kwa (irr.)'''
| eat
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-maka (II)'''
| give (to someone)
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-mana (I)'''
| cook
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-mati (I)'''
| know, understand
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-neki (II)'''
| want, love
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-nutza (I)'''
| call, speak to
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-paka (II)'''
| wash
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-palewia (IV)'''
| help
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-pia (I)'''
| have
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-talia (IV)'''
| put
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-temua (IV)'''
| look for
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-uni (II)'''
| drink
| style="background:#efefef;" | '''-wika (I)'''
| take, carry
|}

=== Valency changes ===
There are a number of means, grammatical or lexical, for changing a verb's [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]] (the number of arguments it takes) and thereby effectively 'converting' it to a different transitivity type. A considerable number of lexical pairs exist consisting of two related verbs, one intransitive and the other transitive:

{|
|width="50%"|
The ''-i'' (intr.) ~ ''-a'' or ''-ia'' (tr.) [[alternation (linguistics)|alternation]] is very frequent in the lexicon, but is not productive, and does not constitute a hard-and-fast rule.
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''kelun-'''i''''' (II) 'break' (intr.) ~ ''-kelun-'''a''''' (I) 'break' (tr.)
* ''tem-'''i''''' (II) 'become full' (intr.) ~ ''-tem-'''a''''' (I) 'fill' (tr.)
* ''shin-'''i''''' (II) 'be sprinkled' (intr.) ~ ''-shini-'''a''''' (IV) 'sprinkle' (tr.)
* ''tam-'''i''''' (II) 'end' (intr.) ~ ''-tami-'''a''''' (IV) 'end' (tr.)
|-
|width="50%"|
A more productive lexical derivation that increases valency is the [[causative]] suffix ''-tia''.
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''kalak-'''i''''' (II) 'enter' (intr.) ~ ''-kalak-'''tia''''' (IV) 'put in, bring in' (tr.)
* ''mik-'''i''''' (II) 'die' (intr.) ~ ''-mik-'''tia''''' (IV) 'kill' (tr.)
* ''panu'' (II) 'pass' (intr.) ~ ''-panul-'''tia''''' (IV) 'cause to pass' (tr.)
* ''tawan-i'' (II) 'get drunk' (intr.) ~ ''-tawan-'''tia''''' (IV) 'get (someone) drunk' (tr.)
|}

Apart from such purely lexical alternations, there are two prefixes with specific grammatical functions which, attached to transitive verbs, reduce their surface valency (when they are used, there is no object prefix):

{|
|width="50%"|
The [[unaccusative]] prefix ''ta-'' indicates that the object is indefinite or unspecified. Compare: ''Yaja '''ki'''-kwa'' 'He eats it', ''Yaja '''ki'''-kwa ne et'' 'He eats the beans', but ''Yaja '''ta'''-kwa'' 'he eats'.
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''-kwa'' 'eat' (tr.) → '''''ta'''-kwa'' (unspecified object)
* ''-mana'' 'cook' (tr.) → '''''ta'''-mana'' (unspecified object)
* ''-paka'' 'wash' (tr.) → '''''ta'''-paka'' (unspecified object)
|-
|width="50%"|
The [[unergative]] prefix ''mu-'' avoids mentioning the [[agent (grammar)|agent]], and the underlying object gets re-encoded as surface subject, e.g. ''Mu-kwa'' 'It gets eaten', ''Mu-kwa ne et'' 'The beans get eaten'.
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''-kwa'' 'eat' (tr.) → '''''mu'''-kwa'' 'get eaten'
* ''-mana'' 'cook' (tr.) → '''''mu'''-mana'' 'get cooked'
|-
|width="50%"|
''Mu-'' has three other possible meanings, all involving a survace valency decrease: [[grammatical voice|reflexive, reciprocal and middle]].
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* '''Reflexive''': ''-paka'' 'wash' (tr.) → '''''mu'''-paka'' 'wash oneself'
* '''Reciprocal''': ''-ita'' 'see' (tr.) → '''''mu'''-ita'' 'see each other'
* '''Middle''': ''-namiktia'' 'marry (tr.) → '''''mu'''-namiktia'' 'get married'
|}

=== Unmarked oblique complements ===
Some Nawat verbs have a [[complement (linguistics)|complement]] which does not correspond to any index in the verb. These include the following:

{|
|width="50%"|
Intransitive verbs taking a [[locative]] complement. In this case the complement may optionally be replaced by a [[prepositional]] or [[relational]] phrase.
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Naja niyaw '''Sentzunat'''.'' 'I am going ''to Sonsonate''.'
(also: ''Naja niyaw '''ka Sentzunat'''.'')
* ''Yaja nemi '''Awachapan'''.'' 'She is ''in Ahuachapán''.'
(also: ''Yaja nemi '''tik Awachapan'''.'')
|-
|width="50%"|
[[Ditransitive]] verbs, i.e. transitive verbs with two 'objects'. Generally one of these has the semantic role of [[recipient (grammar)|recipient]] or [[affected (grammar)|affected party]], and this will be encoded as grammatical object in Nawat. The other complement, normally in a [[patient (grammar)|patient]] role, is made the unmarked [[oblique case|oblique]] complement.
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Ne siwat nechmakak '''ne tumin'''.'' 'The woman gave me ''the money''.'
* ''Yaja kinmachtia '''Nawat'''.'' 'He teaches them ''Nawat''.'
* ''Nechishtilijket '''ne nupiltzin'''.'' 'They took ''my son'' from me.'
|-
|width="50%"|
Valency-reduced ditransitives, i.e. verbs of the preceding type that undergo [[valency (linguistics)|valency]]-reduction with ''ta-'' or ''mu-'', thereby becoming two-argument verbs without a grammatical object. For example, ''ta-machtia'' 'teach (something)' (without saying whom we teach).
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Yaja tamachtia '''Nawat'''.'' 'He teaches ''Nawat''.'
* ''Ne siwat tamakak '''tumin'''.'' 'The woman gave ''money''.'
|-
|width="50%"|
With ''mu-'' we have ''mu-machtia'' 'learn, study' (i.e. 'teach oneself').
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Yejemet mumachtiat '''Nawat'''.'' 'They learn (or study) ''Nawat''.'
|}

=== Verb sequences ===
There are several ways for a verb to be subordinated to another (preceding) verb.

* If the verbs have different subjects:

{|
|width="50%"|
the subordinate verb may be in the [[subjunctive]] (always introduced by ''ma'')...
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Nikneki '''ma shinaka'''.'' 'I want you to stay.'
|-
| ...or in the present tense introduced by ''pal'' or ''ka''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Niwalajtuk nikan '''pal titaketzat'''.'' 'I have come here so that we may talk.' (literally 'I have come here for we talk')
* ''Ken tikchiwki '''ka yawi''' ne tawanani?'' 'How did you get the drunkard to go away?' (lit. 'How did you make that (he) goes away the drunkard?')
|-
| But if the first object is the same as the second subject, there may be no subordinator with the present ([[serial verb construction]]).
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Inte nechajkawa '''nikalaki'''.'' 'She won't let me in.' (literally 'She doesn't let me I enter')
|}

* When both verbs share the same subject:

{|
|width="50%"|
''Pal'' may again be used, with both verbs indexed for the same subject:
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Niwalaj ka nikan '''pal nitaketza''' muwan.'' 'I came here in order to talk to you.' (lit. 'I came here for I talk with you')
|-
| The two verbs may be juxtaposed with no intervening [[subordinator (grammar)|subordinator]], again with both verbs indexed for the same subject and the second in the present (i.e. unmarked) tense. Called the [[serial verb construction]], this pattern is very pervasive and has many uses in Nawat.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Niajki '''nitaketza''' iwan.'' 'I went to speak to him.' (literally 'I went I speak with him')
* ''Nikistuk '''nipashalua'''.'' 'I have come out for a stroll.' (lit. 'I have gone out I stroll')
* ''Nimuketzki '''niktatia''' tit.'' 'I got up to light the fire.' (lit. 'I got up I light the fire')
* ''Nimukwepki '''nikita'''.'' 'I turned around to see.' (lit. 'I turned round I see')
* ''Yaja mutalia '''chuka'''.'' 'He is sitting (there) crying.' (lit. 'He sits he cries')
|}

=== Periphrastic TAM constructions ===
The serial construction also serves as the structure for a number of compound expressions of [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[linguistic modality|modality]], e.g.

{|
| width="50%" |
''yawi'' (present) + V (periphrastic future)
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Naja '''niyaw nimumachtia''' Nawat.'' 'I am going to (''or'' I will) learn Nawat.'
|-
| ''nemi'' + V 'be V-ing'
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Tejemet '''tinemit titakwat'''.'' 'We are eating.' ''
|-
| ''pewa'' + V 'start V-ing'
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Ne piltzin '''pejki chuka'''.'' 'We boy started to cry.' ''
|-
| ''-neki'' + V 'want to V'
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Naja '''niknekiskia nimetzpalewia'''.'' 'I would like to help you.' ''
|-
| ''weli'' + V 'can/be able to/know how to V'
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Taja '''tiweli titaketza''' yek.'' 'You can speak well.' ''
|}

But there are also constructions, or variant expressions, that depart from this pattern somewhat.

The invariable word ''katka'', which means 'was' or 'before, in the past', may occur following a verb form to establish past or habitual reference, e.g. ''inte kimati katka'' 'he didn't know'.

=== Negation ===

[[negation (linguistics)|Negative]] [[grammatical particle|particles]] immediately precede either a verb or a non-verbal predicate. Basically there are three of them:

{|
| width="50%" |
the ordinary negator ''inte'' (with a shorter form: ''te'' and a dialect variant ''tesu''),
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Ne siwatket '''inte''' walajtiwit.'' 'The women have not come.'
* '''''Tesu''' nikmati.'' 'I do not know.'
* ''Naja '''te''' ni-Carlos.'' 'I am not Carlos.'
|-
| the less frequent ''nian'' or ''nan'', which is conjunctive or emphatic,
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Yejemet inte takwajket '''nian''' atiket.'' 'They neither ate nor drank.'
|-
| and the [[prohibitive mood|prohibitive]] ''maka'' or ''má''.
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* '''''Maka''' shalmukwepa!'' 'Don't come back!'
|}

They also combine with pronouns and adverbs to yield other negative expressions, e.g. ''(in)te (t)atka'' 'nothing', ''(in)te aka'' 'no one', ''(in)te keman'' 'never', ''nian aka'' 'no one at all, and no one', ''maka keman'' 'never ever!', etc.: ''Inte nikmati tatka (datka)'' 'I know nothing', ''Maka shikilwi aka!'' 'Do not tell anyone!'

=== Phase ===
Two suffixes, ''-a'' and ''-uk'', lend different [[phasal (grammar)|phasal]] nuances to a predicate, i.e. they add certain temporal (or related) notions, expressing that a situation has already been reached (with ''-a'') or that it still obtains (with ''-uk''). The more common phasal suffix, ''-a'', is also used simply to place emphasis on the predicate so marked. Compare for example:

{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Nemi takwal.'' 'There is some food.'
* ''Nemi'''a''' takwal.'' 'There is food now.' (implies there wasn't any before)
* ''Nemi'''uk''' takwal.'' 'There is still food.' (implies there was food before too)
|}

In negative sentences, the phasal suffixes are added to the negative particle, for example:

{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Inte (te, tesu) nemi takwal.'' 'There is no food.'
* ''Inte'''a''' (teya, teya su) nemi takwal.'' 'There is no more food.'
* ''Inte'''uk''' (teyuk) nemi takwal.'' 'There is no food yet.'
|}

=== Questions ===
Yes-no [[question]]s are not differentiated grammatically from the corresponding statements. They may be affirmative, e.g. ''Taja tikmati?'' 'Do you know?', or negative, e.g. ''Inte tikitak kanka witz?'' 'Didn't you see where he was coming from?'

For replying affirmatively to yes-no questions, one may use ''E / Ej / Eje'' 'Yes', and sometimes ''Kia'' 'That's right' (literally 'So'). But it is equally common to respond using the appropriately inflected form of the main verb of the question, e.g. (offering a cookie, for example) ''Tikneki se? - Nikneki'' 'Would you like one? - I would', ''Weli titaketza Nawat? - Weli'' 'Can you speak Nawat? - I can'. The standard negative answer is ''Inte / Te / Tesu'' 'No', or again, the verb of the question negated: ''Tikitak uni takat ka ne? - Te nikitak'' 'Did you see that man over there? - I did not'. Other idiomatic responses include ''Nusan'' 'Also', ''Teika inte!'' or ''Taika te!'' 'Why not!' and ''Inte / Te / Tesu nikmati'' 'I don't know'.

Wh-questions are formed with a wh-word which usually immediately precedes the predicate (verbal or non-verbal.

[[Indirect question]]s are introduced by either ''(a)su'' 'if, whether' or a wh-expression, depending on the kind of question.

=== Coordination ===

''Wan'' or ''iwan'' (which is also the preposition and relational 'with') serves as an all-purpose coordinating [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]]. There seem not to be any specialised native words for 'but' and 'or' (unless ''ush'' 'or' is one), and the Spanish words ''pero'' and ''o'' are sometimes used. ''N(i)an'' 'nor' may be used to coordinate negative statements. ''Mal'' or ''melka'' 'although, even though' can form adversative clauses, e.g. ''Niyaw niyaw, mal-te/melka te nikneki'' 'I will go, although I don't want to'. ''Nusan'' 'also' is common, e.g. ''Yaja nusan walaj'' 'She also came'; its negative counterpart is simply ''nusan te...'' 'not...either', e.g. ''Naja nusan te nikneki nitakwa'' 'I don't want to eat either'.

=== Subordination ===

[[subordinate clause]]s are introduced by [[subordinator (grammar)|subordinators]]; the following table illustrates some of the most common:

{| class=wikitable
! subor-dinator
! translation
! use
! example
|-
| '''ka'''
| 'that', 'because'
| general complementizer, reason
|
* ''Yaja ina '''ka''' te kimati tatka.'' 'He says that he doesn't know anything (about it).'
* ''Ne ejekat witz sesek '''ka''' ne mishti kitzakwa ne tunal.'' 'The wind comes cold because clouds cover the sun.'
|-
| '''ma''' (subjunc-tive)
| 'that', 'to'
| unrealized different-subject complements, purpose
|
* ''Nikneki '''ma''' shitakwika.'' 'I want you to sing.'
* ''Yek '''ma''' mumachtikan.'' 'It is good that they should learn.'
* ''Shikajkawa ne at '''ma''' seseya.'' 'Leave the water to cool.'
|-
| '''pal'''
| '(in order) to', 'for...to'
| purpose
|
* ''Ne tujtutut welit patanit '''pal''' kitemuat takwal.'' 'Birds are able to fly in order to seek food.'
* ''Nalwikatuk ini '''pal''' tikwa.'' 'I have brought this for you to eat.'
|-
| '''(a)su'''
| 'if'
| condition, indirect question
|
* '''''Su''' te nitekiti, te tiawit titakwat.'' 'If I do not work we will not eat.'
* ''Shiktajtanili '''su''' weli metzmaka chiupi at.'' 'Ask her if she can give you some water.'
|-
| '''kwak'''
| 'when'
| time clause
|
* '''''Kwak''' niajsik, te nemituya aka.'' 'When I arrived, there wasn't anybody there.'
|}

Relative clauses, which always follow (rather than precede) their head, may be simply juxtaposed clauses, or introduced by the article ''ne'', the general complementizer ''ka'' or the interrogative pronoun ''ká'' (the last two being distinguished phonologically in various ways in the dialects). Headless relative clauses are introduced by interrogative pronouns.

== Lexicon ==
=== General ===
As regards origin, the Pipil [[lexicón]] consists of the following components:

* the central component (by far the largest): native or inherited vocabulary, nearly all shared (with minor variations) with Mexican Nahuatl, though the lexeme pool is patently smaller than that of Classical Nahuatl)
* a small number of loans from surrounding indigenous languages
* loans from Spanish, the proportion of which fluctuates depending on the speaker and register, and which includes loans of varying antiquity and degree of integration
* [[neologism]]s proposed by some speakers or writers based on extending the native vocabulary component
* loans from Mexican Nahuatl varieties proposed by some speakers or writers

There exist mechanisms of native origin for the creation of derived and compound words. No doubt these were more actively used in the language's past, since some such mechanisms are only attested in fossilized form. In more recent periods of the language, use of such procedures appears to have decreased, and with them the productivity of the procedures themselves.

=== Derivation ===
A selection of well-attested [[derivation (linguistics)|derivational]] affixes follows:

{| class=wikitable
! affix
! function
! meaning
! examples
|-
| '''-k''' or '''-tik''' suffix
| adjectives
| general adjective suffix
|
* ''ista-t'' 'salt' → ''ista-k'' 'white'
* ''-kukua'' 'hurt' → ''kuku-k'' 'painful, spicy-hot'
* ''chil'' 'pepper' → ''chil-tik'' 'red'
|-
| '''-tuk''' suffix
| adjectives from verbs
| participle or stative adjective
|
* ''wak-i (verb)'' 'dry' → ''wak-tuk'' 'dry (adj.)'
* ''mik-i'' 'die' → ''mik-tuk'' 'dead'
|-
| '''-na(j)''' suffix
| adjectives
| cf. '-ish', '-y'
|
* ''chil-tik'' 'red' → ''chi-chil-naj'' 'reddish'
* ''petz-tik'' 'bare, naked' → ''petz-naj'' 'smooth'
|-
| '''-yu''' suffix
| nouns from nouns
| 'special' inalienables (non-productive)
|
* ''a-t'' 'water' → ''-a-yu'' 'juice, sauce, soup'
* ''-teku'' 'father' → ''-tekuyu'' 'master'
|-
| '''te-''' prefix
| nouns from nouns
| alienable from inalienable (non-productive)
|
* ''-nan'' 'mother' → ''te-nan'' '(somebody's) mother'
* ''-pal'' 'property' → ''te-pal'' 'belonging to somebody (else)'
|-
| '''-tzin/chin''' suffix
| nouns from nouns
| diminutive (or honorific) suffix
|
* ''te-t'' 'stone, rock' → ''te-chin'' 'little stone'
* ''-nan'' 'mother' → ''nan-tzin'' 'lady'
|-
| '''-pala''' suffix
| nouns from nouns
| old, pejorative suffix
|
* ''kwach-ti'' 'cloth' → ''kwach-pala / kwech-pala'' 'rag'
* ''siwa-t'' 'woman' → ''siwa-pala'' 'whore'
|-
| '''-tal''' suffix
| nouns from nouns
| collective suffix, plantation
|
* ''chapulin'' 'locust' → ''chapulin-tal'' 'swarm of locusts'
* ''kamuj'' 'cassava' → ''kamuj-tal'' 'cassava patch'
|-
| '''-l''' suffix
| nouns from verbs
| object of action
|
* ''ta-kwa'' 'eat' → ''ta-kwa-l'' 'food, animal'
|-
| '''-ni''' suffix
| nouns from verbs
| agent
|
* ''ta-machtia'' 'teach' → ''ta-machtia-ni'' 'teacher'
* ''miki'' 'die' → ''miki-ni'' 'dead body'
|-
| '''-lis''' suffix
| nouns from verbs
| action or result
|
* ''ta-kaki'' 'hear' → ''ta-kaki-lis'' 'hearing'
* ''takwika'' 'sing' → ''takwika-lis'' 'song'
|-
| '''-ya''' suffix
| intransitive verbs from adjectives
| inchoative
|
* ''sese-k'' 'cold' → ''sese-ya'' 'get cold'
|-
| '''-tia''' suffix
| transitive verbs from verbs
| causative
|
* ''miki'' 'die' → ''-mik-tia'' 'kill'
* ''kalaki'' 'enter' → ''-kalak-tia'' 'put in, bring in'
|-
| '''-(i)lia''' suffix
| ditransitive verbs from transitive verbs
| applicative
|
* ''-ishtia'' 'take out/away' → ''-ishti-lia'' 'take out/away from (someone)'
* ''-chiwa'' 'do' → ''-chiw-ilia'' 'do (something) to (someone)'
|-
| '''mu-''' prefix
| intransitive verbs from transitive verbs
| reflexive or medio-passive
|
* ''-talia'' 'put' → ''mu-talia'' 'sit'
* ''-altia'' 'bath (trans.)' → ''m-altia'' (for *''mu-altia'') 'bathe (intrans.)'
|-
| '''ta-''' prefix
| verbs from transitive verbs
| unaccusative (though sometimes re-transtivized)
|
* ''-chia'' 'wait for' → ''ta-chia'' 'look, see'
* ''-mutia'' 'scare' → ''ta-mutia'' 'be scary'
|}

=== Ideophones ===
[[Ideophone]]s are a distinct set of [[lexical item]]s, often denoting some process that is directly perceived by the senses (such as a kind of sound or visual experience), which enter into a special range of language-specific grammatical patterns. Nawat is one of many languages possessing such items and the associated patterns, which in this case are 'expressive' verb formations. The root form of a typical Nawat ideophone is a CVCV sequence, e.g. ''-chala-, -china-, -kelu-, -kina-, -kumu-, -kwala-, -tapa-, -tikwi-, -tzaya-, -tzili-, -tzutzu-''. These roots are not words and only acquire full meaning when they enter into one or another of the derivational patterns for Nawat ideophones. Some at least are probably onomatopoeic in origin.

The four most common morphological patterns for such Nawat verb formations are the following (R represents the ideophone root, rR a reduplicated root without ''j''):

{| class=wikitable
! pattern
! type of formation
! examples
|-
| R'''ni'''
| intransitive diffusion verbs
|
* ''kelu-ni'' 'break (intr.)'
* ''kumu-ni'' 'swarm'
* ''kwala-ni'' 'get angry'
* ''tapa-ni'' 'explode'
* ''tikwi-ni'' 'thunder'
* ''tzili-ni'' 'ring'
|-
| -R'''na''' or -R'''nia'''
| transitive diffusion verbs
|
* ''kelu-na'' 'break (tr.)'
* ''tapa-na'' 'cause to explode'
* ''tzaya-na'' 'cause to split'
* ''tzutzu-na'' 'play a musical instrument'
* ''kumu-nia'' 'excite'
|-
| rR'''ka'''
| intransitive repetitive verbs
|
* ''cha-chala-ka'' 'chatter'
* ''chi-china-ka'' 'burn'
* ''ki-kina-ka'' 'complain'
* ''kwa-kwala-ka'' 'boil'
|-
| -rR'''tza'''
| transitive repetitive verbs
|
* ''-ke-kelu-tza'' 'stir, shake'
|}

=== Incorporation ===

[[Classical Nahuatl]] is characterized by widespread use of the device of [[Incorporation (linguistics)|incorporation]]. This is a grammatical and lexical phenomenon found in different guises in many languages. The Nahuatl system is quite well known to linguists because it is often cited as an example in linguistic literature.

Briefly, in incorporation a [[lexeme]] potentially representing one of a verb's semantic [[verb argument|arguments]] or [[adjunct (grammar)|adjuncts]], rather than forming a separate grammatical [[constituent (linguistics)|constituent]] is allowed to be attached directly to the verb itself thereby forming a [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] verb. In Nahuatl this incorporated lexeme is prefixed to the verb.

In Pipil, examples of this kind of structure also occur. However, their use is far less widespread than in Classical Nahuatl, and the process is barely (if at all) [[productive]]. Therefore existing examples rather resemble ordinary [[lexicalization|lexicalized]] compounds. Furthermore, most of those used involve one of a specific, limited range of incorporating elements which show considerable [[grammaticalization]] and are therefore perhaps best viewed, in the Pipil context at least, simply as [[derivation (linguistics)|derivational]] prefixes.

The grammaticalization of these elements manifests itself in form, meaning and function. The Pipil forms of some of these incorporating stems are somewhat specialized phonologically; moreover, some of the forms used for incorporation no longer have corresponding full-word counterparts.

Most of the narrow set of widely-used incorporating elements belong to a single semantic set, that of body parts. While in some compounds the literal meanings of such elements subsists, in many others they only retain a broadly metaphorical sense, while in some it is quite difficult to perceive any particular meaning at all.

A selection of Pipil 'incorporation prefixes' with illustrations of some of their uses follows:

{| class=wikitable
! prefix
! meaning(s)
! full word
! examples
|-
| '''a-'''
| water
| ''a-t'' 'idem'
|
* ''-a-pachua'' 'immerse in water' (cf. ''-pachua'' 'press, flatten')
* ''-a-paka'' 'wash (in water)' (cf. ''-paka'' 'wash')
* ''-a-kalaki'' 'enter in water' (cf. ''-kalaki'' 'enter')
|-
| '''ek-'''
| good / well
| ''yek'' 'idem'
|
* ''-ek-chiwa'' 'arrange, prepare' (cf. ''-chiwa'' 'make, do')
|-
| '''el-'''
| chest, mind
| (none)
|
* ''-el-namiki'' 'remember' (cf. ''-namiki'' 'meet')
* ''-el-kawa'' 'forget' (cf. ''-(aj)kawa'' 'leave')
|-
| '''ish-'''
| eye / face / front
| ''-ish'' 'eye'
|
* ''-ish-mati'' 'know, be familiar with, recognize' (cf. ''-mati'' 'know')
* ''-ish-kwepa'' 'turn around, turn over' (cf. ''-kwepa'' 'turn')
|-
| '''ku-''' (1)
| tree / wood / stick
| ''kwawit'' 'idem' (construct ''-kwaw'')
|
* ''ku-temu'' 'climb down' (cf. ''temu'' 'descend')
|-
| '''ku-''' (2)
| head
| (none)
|
* ''-ku-pachua'' 'hold down (by the head?)' (cf. ''-pachua'' 'press, flatten')
|-
| '''ma-'''
| hand
| ''-mey, -may'' 'idem'
|
* ''-ma-paka'' 'wash hands' (cf. ''-paka'' 'wash')
|-
| '''sen-'''
| one / together
| ''se'' 'one'
|
* ''sen-ta-kwa'' 'eat together' (cf. ''(ta)-kwa'' 'eat')
|-
| '''ten-'''
| mouth / opening / door
| ''-ten'' 'idem'
|
* ''-ten-namiki'' 'kiss, revere' (cf. ''-namiki'' 'meet')
* ''-ten-tzakwa'' 'close' (cf. ''-tzakwa'' 'cover, close')
|-
| '''tzin-'''
| bottom / base
| (none)
|
* ''-tzin-kutuna'' 'cut down' (cf. ''-kutuna'' 'cut')
|-
| '''tzun-'''
| head
| ''-tzuntekun'' 'head'
|
* ''-tzun-teki'' 'wound' (cf. ''-teki'' 'cut')
|-
| '''yul-'''
| heart, mind, life
| ''-yulu'' 'heart', ''yultuk'' 'alive'
|
* ''yul-taketza'' 'think' (cf. ''taketza'' 'speak')
* ''mu-yul-kwepa'' 'revive, come back to life' (cf. ''-kwepa'' '(re)turn')
|}

Examples of sentences containing incorporation compounds:

{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
| style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Ne isiwaw '''mukechkupina''' kisa pashalua.'' 'His wife would divide in two at the neck [and the head would] go out and have fun.' (''mu-kech-kupina'' 'REFLEXIVE + neck + separate')
* ''Pejki '''kitzinkutuna''' muchi ne ijikshi tatuk.'' 'He started to cut down all the corn stalks.' (''ki-tzin-kutuna'' 'OBJECT + base + cut')
* ''Kan kitak ka mutalujket, '''kutemuk''' wan kianki ne tumin.'' 'When he saw that they had run away, he climbed down the tree and picked up the money.' (''ku-temu-k'' 'tree + descend + PAST')
* ''Yejemet kikwit ne at pal kiunit wan pal '''mumapakat'''.'' 'They use the water for drinking and washing (their hands).' (''mu-ma-paka-t'' 'REFLEXIVE + hand + wash + PLURAL)'
|}

=== Other compounds ===

Lexical stems may combine to form other kinds of lexical [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]]. Compounding mechanisms may still exist in the spontaneous language use of some speakers (to the extent that they still have spontaneous language use) but there is limited evidence for their natural, productive application.

Where traditional compounds are concerned, much of what has beensaid about incorporation is equally applicable. In fact, the same lexical combining forms that predominate in incorporation verbs often reappear in other compounds. Since these tend to be monosyllables with a low level of semantic specificity, we may call them 'light elements' and the compounds they form 'light compounds'.

{| class=wikitable
|+ Some 'light' compounds
! first element
! second element
! compound
! meaning of compound
|-
| ''a-'' 'water'
| ''kua-'' 'snake'
| ''a-kua-t''
| 'eel'
|-
| ''ish-'' 'eye, face'
| ''kal'' 'house'
| ''ish-kal-yu''
| 'face'
|-
| ''ma-'' 'hand'
| ''-kwi'' 'take'
| ''ma-kwi-l''
| 'five'
|-
| ''ma-'' 'hand'
| ''pipil'' 'child, diminutive'
| ''ma-pipil''
| 'finger'
|-
| ''sen-'' 'one'
| ''-pua'' 'count'
| ''sen-pua-l''
| 'five, twenty (lit. one-count)'
|-
| ''ten-'' 'mouth, opening'
| ''kal'' 'house'
| ''ten-kal''
| 'patio, door'
|-
| ''ten-'' 'mouth, opening'
| ''-tzun-'' 'hair'
| ''-ten-tzun''
| 'beard, moustache'
|-
| ''tzin-'' 'bottom, base'
| ''kal'' 'house'
| ''tzin-kal''
| 'corner'
|-
| ''tzun-'' 'head'
| ''-tukay'' 'name'
| ''-tzun-tukay''
| 'surname'
|}

Compounds containing more than one 'heavy' lexeme are rather rarer, and when new ones are proposed it is perhaps most often in response to the pressure of Spanish, i.e. in attempts to find a 'native' equivalent to a Spanish word in order to avoid a loanword. In the following table, '%' preceding a word indicates a neologism (proposed by at least one native speaker).

{| class=wikitable
|+ Some 'heavy' compounds
! first element
! second element
! compound
! meaning of compound
|-
| ''achtu'' 'first, before'
| ''-ish'' 'eye'
| %''achtu-ish''
| 'spectacles' (cf. Spanish 'ante-ojos')
|-
| ''kujtan'' 'forest, countryside'
| ''kuyam-et'' 'pig'
| ''kujtan-kuyam-et''
| 'peccary' (cf. Spanish '' 'tunco de monte' '')
|-
| ''kujtan'' 'forest, countryside'
| ''techan'' 'village'
| ''kujtan-techan''
| 'hamlet' (Spanish '' 'cantón' '')
|-
| ''naka-'' 'meat'
| ''tamal'' 'tortilla'
| ''naka-tamal''
| 'tamale (with meat filling)'
|-
| ''siwa-'' 'female'
| ''mistun'' 'cat'
| ''siwa-mistun''
| 'female cat'
|-
| ''tajku'' 'middle, half'
| ''tunal'' 'day'
| ''tajku-tunal''
| 'noon'
|-
| ''tepus-'' 'iron'
| ''patani'' 'fly'
| %''tepus-patani''
| 'plane'
|-
| ''tzupelek'' 'sweet'
| ''kisa'' 'come out'
| ''tzupelek-kisa''
| 'become sweet'
|-
| ''ujti'' 'road, way'
| ''patawak'' 'wide'
| ''ujti-patawak''
| 'main road'
|-
| ''ukich'' 'male'
| ''tijlan'' 'hen, chicken'
| ''ukich-tijlan''
| 'rooster'
|}

=== Loanwords ===

When speakers fail to find an adequate word or expression in Nawat they may (1) employ a [[circumlocution]] (for example, they could call the kitchen ''kan titamanat'' '(the place) where we cook'), (2) [[loanword|borrow]] a Spanish word or expression (e.g. ''ne kosina'' 'the ''cocina' ''), or (3) simply [[code-switching|code-switch]]. However, when we speak of [[loanwords]] we have in mind items of foreign origin that have become habitual elements of Nawat usage and may also have undergone adaptation as a result.

{|
| width="50%" |
Spanish loans into Nawat include some very common words indeed, such as ''mas'' 'more' or ''pero'' 'but'. Some loans, particularly older ones, may adopt forms or meanings which differentiate them from their Spanish source, e.g. ''pelu'' 'dog' (Spanish ''perro''), ''mesaj'' 'table' (Sp. ''mesa''), ''noya'' 'grandmother' (from Spanish ''señora'' 'lady'). There are also cases where the source form or meaning has become less common or disappeared from contemporary Spanish usage (at least in the standard varieties) but lives on in Nawat, e.g. ''tumin'' 'coin, money' (older Spanish ''tomín''). In such cases as these, speakers may be unaware of a word's historical origin and simply view it as 'typical Nawat', even preferring it to a neologism created with an intention of greater 'authenticity'.
| width="50%"; style="background:#efefef;" |
* ''Tiut tiawit '''aber''' su timuchiwa '''alegrar''' chupi.'' 'We'll go ''and see'' if you ''cheer up'' a little.'
* '''''Pero''' kenemej tesu mawiltia ka '''afuera''', muchijki '''entristecer'''.'' '' 'But'' in this way he didn't play ''outside'', he ''became sad''.'
* ''Nu '''amiguj ikustuj''' na nikchiwa '''contar cuentos'''.'' 'My ''friend likes'' me to ''tell stories''.'
* ''Ashkan tiksajsakat chikwasen pual '''kushtal aros'''.'' 'Today we'll carry a hundred and twenty ''sacks'' of ''rice''.'
* ''Musta tiu-tiawit '''ashta''' ne tatzinu.'' 'Tomorrow we'll go ''towards'' the south.'
* ''Tesu kimati katka ka ne isiwaw se '''brujaj'''.'' 'He didn't know that his wife was a ''witch''.'
* ''Ne musiwapiltzin yaja '''mas''' selek.'' 'Your daughter is young''er''.'
* ''Tay '''ora''' tinemit?'' 'What time is it?' (literally 'What ''hour'' are we (at)?'
|}

With one possible exception (''pashalua'' 'go for a walk, take time off work' < *pasyarua < Spanish ''pasear'' + the non-productive verb suffix ''-ua''), verbs can only be borrowed into Nawat from other languages in an invariable form based on the Spanish [[infinitive]]. Such forms cannot be conjugated directly. Instead, they must be preceded by the Nawat verb ''-chiwa'' 'make, do' to form compound expressions, e.g. from Spanish ''escribir'' 'write' we have Nawat ''nikchiwa escribir'' (contracted to ''nikcha escribir'') 'I write' (literally 'I do ''escribir' ''), ''tikchiwket'' or ''tikchijket escribir'' 'we wrote' (lit. 'we did ''escribir' ''), etc.

== Dialect variation ==
=== Dialects ===
Pipil internal [[dialect]] variation is incompletely documented at present. While recognising the existence of important gaps in our knowledge (which or may or may not ever be filled, as the last native speakers pass on), we do know of two well-defined dialect areas, at least as far as the department of Sonsonate is concerned which may tentatively be called Upland and Lowland respectively. The Upland dialect area includes the towns of [[Izalco]] and [[Nahuizalco]], the Lowland area those of [[Santo Domingo de Guzmán]] and [[Cuisnahuat]]. Present knowledge also includes some points of differentiation between Santo Domingo and Cuisnahuat. Thus for practical purposes we are chiefly able to speak of three known varieties: Izalco, Cuisnahuat and Santo Domingo.

=== Phonological variation ===
* The /k/ [[phoneme]] has [[voiced]] [[allophone]]s more frequently in Lowland, especially in Santo Domingo.
* Syllable-final /l/ (as in ''kal'' 'house', ''chiltik'' 'red') is sometimes devoiced; no clear dialect distribution can be formulated for this trait, however.
* Pre-consonantal /s/ following /i/ (as in ''mistun'' 'cat') is often [[palatalization|palatalized]]; again no precise distribution can be stated.
* In some areas the evolution of secondary [[semivowel]]s described above for unstressed syllables also takes place in stressed syllables, the [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] then falling on the vowel following the semivowel giving rise to word-final stress, e.g. /maltia/ 'bathes' → [mal'tja] (rather than [mal'tija]), and /kuat/ 'snake' → ['kwat] (instead of ['kuwat], ['guwat]). This feature has been attested for Nahuizalco and for the department of Ahuachapan, but a complete isogloss remains to be drawn.

=== Morphological variation ===
* The plural prefixes with a [[nasal consonant|nasal]] element (''in(h)-'', ''kin(h)-'') tend to be avoided by some speakers in Santo Domingo, but this appears to be a new development.
* The sequence /nm/ in second person plural forms (''anmejemet'', ''anmu-'') is variously altered: ''amejemet'', ''amu-'', ''anhejemet'', ''awmejemet'', ''mejemet''...).
* For Izalco ''nikan'' 'here', ''ashan'' 'now, today', ''nemá'' 'later', ''kwakuni'' 'then' and ''ijkiuni'' 'like that', Santo Domingo has ''nin'', ''an'', ''nemanha'', ''kunij'' ([g-]) and ''kiunij'' ([k-]).
* 'What' and 'who':
{| class=wikitable style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
!
! Izalco/Upland
! Cuisnahuat
! Santo Domingo
|-
! 'what'
| tey
| ta
| tay
|-
! 'who'
| ka
| ka
| gaj
|}
* There are many differences between the assignment of individual verbs to one or another [[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] class, most noticeably affecting past tense formation.
* The verb ''yawi'' 'go' possesses both longer and shorter forms (e.g. ''niyaw'' versus ''niu, nu...''), but the latter vary between dialects.
* The verb ''-chiwa'' 'make, do' possesses full and short forms (e.g. ''nikchiwa'' versus ''nikcha''), but ''-cha'' is more general in Upland dialects.
* The verb ''-maka'' 'give' and derivatives (such as ''-namaka'' 'sell') are normally contracted to monosyllabic ''-ma'' in Upland speech.
* Some sporadic differences in verb [[valency (linguistics)|valencies]], e.g. in Izalco ''tajtani'' 'ask' is intransitive, in Santo Domingo transitive.
* General negative particle: Upland ''inte'', Lowland ''te(su)''.
* Miscellaneous differences in the forms of some words, e.g.
{| class=wikitable style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
!
! Izalco/Upland
! Cuisnahuat
! Santo Domingo
|-
! 'arrive'
| ''así''
| ''ajsi''
| ''ajsi''
|-
! 'tell'
| ''-ilia''
| ''-ilwia''
| ''-ilwia''
|-
! 'forest, country'
| ''kujtan''
| ''kujtan''
| ''kojtan''
|}

=== Syntactic variation ===
* Somewhat different periphrastic tense constructions are found in Upland and Lowland dialects.
* Izalco dialect often adds ''ne'' to subordinators, e.g. ''kwak ne'' 'when', ''kan ne'' 'where', ''tay ne'' 'what', ''pal ne'' 'in order for'.
*

=== Lexical variation ===
A few examples of inter-dialectal lexical differences follow:
{| class=wikitable style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
!
! Izalco/Upland
! Cuisnahuat
! Santo Domingo
|-
! 'be born'
| ''takati''
| ''waltakati''
| ''nesi''
|-
! 'brother (older)'
| ''-echkaw''
| ''-man''
| ''-manuj'' (< Sp. ''hermano''
|-
! 'high'
| ''wejkapan''
| ''kujtik''
| ''kojtik''
|-
! 'laugh'
| ''wetzka''
| ''wetzka''
| ''paki''
|-
! 'party, fiesta'
| ''yualu''
| ''ilwit''
| ''ilwit''
|-
! 'remain'
| ''mukawa''
| ''naka''
| ''naka''
|-
! 'send, order'
| ''-titania''
| ''-tuktia''
| ''-tuktia''
|}

== Spelling systems ==

Among the works published since the early twentieth century until the present in which the Pipil language is described or transcribed at any length, rarely do two authors fully coincide in the spelling conventions they use. The spelling system used in this article is that employed in recently produced materials associated with the Nawat language recovery initiative [http://www.compapp.dcu.ie/~mward/irin/index.htm IRIN]. The following table allows this to be compared to with other spelling systems, ordered approximately in reverse chronological order.

{| class=wikitable
|+ Comparison of spelling systems
! IRIN/
this article
! Geoffroy Rivas/
Lemus
! Campbell
! Schultze Jena
! Spanish-based
|-
! a
| a
| a
| a
| a
|-
! e
| e
| e
| e
| e
|-
! i
| i
| i
| i
| i
|-
! u
| u
| u
| u
| u, o
|-
! p
| p
| p
| p
| p
|-
! t
| t
| t
| t
| t
|-
! k
| k
| k
| k
| k, c, qu
|-
! k
| k
| k
| g
| g, gu
|-
! kw
| q
| kw
| ku
| ku, cu
|-
! tz
| z
| ts
| ts
| tz, ts
|-
! ch
| c
| ch
| č
| ch
|-
! s
| s
| s
| s
| s, z, c
|-
! sh
| x
| x
| š
| sh
|-
! j
| h
| h
| χ
| j
|-
! m
| m
| m
| m
| m
|-
! n
| n (m)
| n (m)
| n, ń, m
| n (m)
|-
! l
| l
| l
| l
| l
|-
! y
| y
| y
| y (i)
| y (i)
|-
! w
| w
| w
| u
| u, hu, gu, gü
|}

== See also ==

* [[Idioma pipil]]
* [[Pipiles]]
* [[Mitología Pipil]]
* [[Señorío de Cuzcatlán]]
* [[Atonal]]
* [[Atlacatl]]

== Referencias ==

* Arauz, Próspero (1960). ''El pipil de la región de los Itzalcos.'' (Edited by Pedro Geoffroy Rivas.) San Salvador: Ministerio de Cultura.
* Calvo Pacheco, Jorge Alfredo (2000). ''Vocabulario castellano-pipil pípil-kastíyan.'' Izalco, El Salvador.
* Campbell, Lyle. (1985). ''The Pipil language of El Salvador''. Mouton grammar library (No. 1). Berlin: Mouton Publishers. ISBN 0-89925-040-8 (U.S.), ISBN 3-11-010344-3.
* Geoffroy Rivas, Pedro (1969). ''El nawat de Cuscatlán: Apuntes para una gramática.'' San Salvador: Ministerio de Educación.
* King, Alan R. (2004a). ''¡Conozcamos el náhuat!'' El Salvador: IRIN.
* King, Alan R. (2004b). ''Gramática elemental del náhuat.'' El Salvador: IRIN.
* King, A.R. (typescript). ''Léxico básico náhuat.''
* Lemus, Jorge Ernesto (1997a). "Formación de palabras y léxico pipil." In: ''Estudios lingüísticos.'' San Salvador: Concultura.
* Lemus, Jorge Ernesto (1997b). "Alfabeto pipil: una propuesta." In: Estudios lingüísticos. San Salvador: Concultura.
* Lemus, Jorge Ernesto (1998). "Fonología métrica del pipil." In: ''Memoria: IV Congreso Lingüístico/I Simposio "Pueblos Indígenas de El Salvador y sus fronteras".'' San Salvador: Concultura.
* Lemus, Jorge Ernesto ([1988]). "A sketch grammar of the Nahuat spoken in Santo Domingo de Guzmán." Bachelor's thesis, Universidad Evangélica de El Salvador. (unpublished typescript)
* Ramírez Vázquez, Genaro (undated typescript). "Pequeña guía para introducción al náhuat."
* Todd, Juan G. (1953). ''Notas del náhuat de Nahuizalco.'' San Salvador: Editorial "Nosotros".

[[Categoría:Pipiles|Gramática pipil]]

[[en:Pipil grammar]]

Revisión del 14:39 14 may 2009

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Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gramática_del_Náhuat&oldid=26330880»