Usuario:Vivero/Joyce

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Vivero/Joyce

James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (Irish Séamus Seoighe; 2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish expatriate writer, widely considered to be one of the most influential writers of the 20th century. He is best known for his landmark novel Ulysses (1922) and its highly controversial successor Finnegans Wake (1939), as well as the short story collection Dubliners (1914) and the semi-autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916).

James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (en irlandés Séamas Seoighe; 1882 - 1941) fue un escritor y poeta irlandés, aunque expatriado durante gran parte de su etapa creativa. Hay gran acuerdo en considerarlo uno de los escritores con mayor influencia en la literatura contemporánea. Se lo recuerda sobre todo por su obra de referencia, la novela Ulises (1922), y por la muy controvertida Finnegans Wake (1939), así como por la colección de cuentos Dublineses (1914) y la novela parcialmente autobiográfica Retrato del artista adolescente (1916) [1]​





Although he spent most of his adult life outside Ireland, Joyce's psychological and fictional universe is firmly rooted in his native Dublin - the city which provides the settings and much of the subject matter for all his fiction. In particular, his tempestuous early relationship with the Irish Roman Catholic Church is reflected through a similar inner conflict in his recurrent alter ego Stephen Dedalus. As the result of his minute attentiveness to a personal locale and his self-imposed exile and influence throughout Europe, (notably in Paris, Francia), Joyce became paradoxically one of the most cosmopolitan yet one of the most regionally-focused of all the English language writers of his time.[2]​

Aunque pasó la mayor parte de su vida adulta fuera de Irlanda, el universo psicológico y argumental de Joyce está firmemente enraizado en su ciudad natal, Dubin, que aporta el paisaje, el entorno social y económico, y en gran parte la trama de todas sus ficciones. En particular, su tempestuosa y temprana relación con la Iglesia Católica Romana irlandesa se refleja en el conflicto interno de su recurrente alter-ego, Stephen Dedalus. De su minuciosa atención a este escenario local, el Dublín de principios del siglo XX, unida a su auto-impuesto exilio y a la influencia europea (singularmente la de París), nace el paradójico perfil de Joyce como uno de los escritores en lengua inglesa más cosmopolitas, y sin embargo también uno de los más regionalistas. [2]​

Life and writing[editar]

Vida y escritos[editar]

Dublin, 1882–1904[editar]

Dublin, 1882–1903[editar]

In 1882, James Augustine Joyce was born into a Roman Catholic family in the Dublin suburb of Rathgar. He was the oldest of 10 surviving children; two of his siblings died of typhoid. His father's family, originally from Fermoy in Cork, had once owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's father and paternal grandfather both married into wealthy families. In 1887, his father, John Stanislaus Joyce, was appointed rate (i.e., a local property tax) collector by Dublin Corporation; the family subsequently moved to the fashionable adjacent small town of Bray 12 miles from Dublin. Around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog; this resulted in a lifelong canine phobia. He also suffered from a fear of thunderstorms, which his deeply religious aunt had described to him as being a sign of God's wrath.[3]​

James Augustine Joyce vio la luz en 1882, en el seno de una familia católica del suburbio dublinés de Rathgar. Fue el mayor de los diez hermanos que sobrevivieron; dos murieron de tifoidea. La familia de su padre, originaria de Fermoy, en Cork, había poseído en algún momento una cantera de cal y sal. Tanto el padre como el abuelo paterno se habían casado con mujeres de familia adinerada. En 1887, su padre, John Stanislaus Joyce fue nombrado recaudador de tributos locales por el ayuntamiento de Dublin; en ese momento la familia se trasladó a la vecina localidad de Bray, entonces de moda, a 12 millas de Dublin. Por estas fechas, Joyce sufrió el ataque de un perro, lo que le produjo una fobia a los cánidos que le acompañaría toda la vida. También padecía de pánico a las tormentas, que su profundamente religiosa tía le había descrito como un signo de la ira de Dios. [4]​

In 1891, Joyce wrote a poem, "Et Tu Healy," on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell. His father was angry at the treatment of Parnell by the Catholic church and at the resulting failure to secure Home Rule for Ireland. The elder Joyce had the poem printed and even sent a copy to the Vatican Library. In November of that same year, John Joyce was entered in Stubbs Gazette (an official register of bankruptcies) and suspended from work. In 1893 John Joyce was dismissed with a pension. This was the beginning of a slide into poverty for the family, mainly due to John's drinking and general financial mismanagement.[5]​

En 1891, con 9 años, escribió el poema Et Tu Healy, sobre la muerte de Charles Stewart Parnell. Su padre estaba airado por el trato que la iglesia católica había dado a Parnell y el consiguiente fracaso de la aprobación de la Home rule o estatuto de autonomía de Irlanda. El precoz poeta llegó a ver su trabajo impreso, e incluso remitió una copia a la Biblioteca Vaticana. En noviembre del mismo año, el nombre de John Joyce apareció en la Stubbs Gazette, un registro oficial de quiebras y morosidades, y dejó de trabajar. En 1893, John Joyce fue despedido con una pensión. Así comenzó la caída en la pobreza de la familia, debida a la incapacidad del padre para gestionar sus finanzas, y también a su alcoholismo.


James Joyce was initially educated by the Jesuit order at Clongowes Wood College, a boarding school near Sallins in County Kildare, which he entered in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could no longer pay the fees. Joyce then studied at home and briefly at the Christian Brothers school on North Richmond Street, Dublin, before he was offered a place in the Jesuits' Dublin school, Belvedere College, in 1893. The offer was made at least partly in the hope that he would prove to have a vocation and join the Order. Joyce, however, was to reject Catholicism by the age of 16, although the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas would remain a strong influence on him throughout his life.[6]​ 

James Joyce fue inicialmente educado por los jesuitas en el Clongowes Wood College, un internado cerca de Sallins, en el condado de Kildare, al que ingresó en 1888, y que tuvo que abandonar en 1892, cuando su padre ya no podía pagar la matrícula. Joyce entonces estudió en casa, y durante un breve período en la escuela O'Connell, de los Hermanos Cristianos en la calle de North Richmond, en Dublín. Finalmente, en 1893 se le ofreció una plaza en otro centro jesuita de Dublín, el Belvedere College. La oferta presuponía, al menos en parte, la esperanza de que el joven tuviera vocación y acabara ingresando en la orden. Joyce, sin embargo, habría de renegar de la iglesia católica a los 16 años, aunque la formación religiosa, y en especial la filosofía de Tomas de Aquino ejercerían una gran influencia a lo largo de toda su vida [7]​

He enrolled at the recently established University College Dublin in 1898. He studied modern languages, specifically English, French and Italian. He also became active in theatrical and literary circles in the city. His review of Ibsen's New Drama, his first published work, was published in 1900 and resulted in a letter of thanks from the Norwegian dramatist himself. Joyce wrote a number of other articles and at least two plays (since lost) during this period. Many of the friends he made at University College Dublin would appear as characters in Joyce's written works. He was an active member of the Literary and Historical Society, University College Dublin, and presented his paper "Drama and Life" to the L&H in 1900.

En 1898 ingresó en el recientemente creado University College Dublin. Estudió lenguas modernas, en particular inglés, francés e italiano. También empezó a moverse en los círculos teatrales y literarios de la ciudad. En 1900 publicó su primer trabajo, un ensayo sobre la obra de Ibsen titulado New Drama, que motivó una carta de agradecimiento del propio dramaturgo noruego. En esta época Joyce escribió otros artículos y al menos dos piezas teatrales (que se han perdido). Muchos de los amigos que hizo en la Universidad habrían de aparecer como personajes de sus cuentos y novelas. Fue miembro activo de la Sociedad Literaria e Histórica de la Universidad, en la que presentó su ponencia "Drama y Vida" (Drama and Life), en 1900.

After graduating from UCD in 1903, Joyce left for Paris to "study medicine", but in reality he squandered money his family could ill afford. He returned to Ireland after a few months, when his mother was diagnosed with cancer.[8]​ Fearing for her son's "impiety", his mother tried unsuccessfully to get Joyce to make his confession and to take communion. She finally passed into a coma and died on August 13, Joyce having refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.[9]​ After her death he continued to drink heavily, and conditions at home grew quite appalling. He scraped a living reviewing books, teaching and singing — he was an accomplished tenor, and won the bronze medal in the 1904 Feis Ceoil.[10]​

Tras graduarse en el University College Dublin en 1903, Joyce marchó a París, nominalmente para estudiar medicina; lo que hizo en realidad fue despilfarrar el dinero que su familia difícilmente podía obtener. Volvió a Irlanda a los pocos meses, cuando su madre fue diagnosticada de cáncer [11]​ La obsesión de su madre era que su hijo mayor volviera al redil de la iglesia. Intentó sin éxito que confesara y comulgara. Finalmente entró en coma, y murió el 13 de agosto. Joyce se había negado a arrodillarse a rezar al borde de la cama, con otros familiares.[12]​ Tras la muerte de su madre, tanto James como su padre siguieron bebiendo en exceso, y las condiciones de vida en la familia se hicieron irrespirables. Joyce se ganaba a duras penas la vida escribiendo reseñas de libros, dando clase y cantando (era un tenor bien dotado; ganó la medalla de bronce en el festival musical Feis Ceoil de 19045) [13]​


Dublin, 1904[editar]

On 7 January 1904, he attempted to publish A Portrait of the Artist, an essay-story dealing with aesthetics, only to have it rejected by the free-thinking magazine Dana. He decided, on his twenty-second birthday, to revise the story and turn it into a novel he planned to call Stephen Hero. This was the same year he met Nora Barnacle, a young woman from Galway city who was working as a chambermaid at Finn's Hotel in Dublin. On 16 June 1904, they went on their first date, an event which would be commemorated by providing the date for the action of Ulysses.

El año de 1904 es decisivo en la biografía de Joyce.

El 7de enero de 1904 intentó publicar Retrato del artista (A portrait of the Artist), una mezcla de ensayo y narración que versaba sobre la estética, pero el editor de la revista de pensamiento libre Dana rechazó la obra. El día en el que cumplía 22 años, Joyce tomó la decisión de revisar la rechazada historia y convertirla en una novela, que pensaba titular Stephen Hero, el héroe Stephen, aludiendo al protagonista del relato, Stephen Daedalus (luego cambiaría el apellido por Dedalus), que a su vez representaba al propio Joyce.

En ese mismo año de 1904 Joyce conoció a Nora Barnacle, una joven de Galway que trabajaba como doncella en el Finn's Hotel de la calle Leinster de Dublin. El 16 de junio Nora le concedió la primera cita, suceso que marcó en tal medida a Joyce que años después elegiría esa fecha, 16 de junio de 1904, para encerrar en ella toda la trama de su novela Ulises. Desde 1954 el 16 de junio es festivo en Irlanda, con el nombre de Bloomsday (día de Bloom, por Leopold Bloom, protagonista de Ulises).

Joyce remained in Dublin for some time longer, drinking heavily. After one of his alcoholic binges, he got into a fight over a misunderstanding with a man in St. Stephen's Green; he was picked up and dusted off by a minor acquaintance of his father, Alfred H. Hunter, who brought him into his home to tend to his injuries.[14]​ Hunter was rumored to be Jewish and to have an unfaithful wife, and would serve as one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the main protagonist of Ulysses.[15]​ He took up with medical student Oliver St John Gogarty, who formed the basis for the character Buck Mulligan in Ulysses. After staying in Gogarty's Martello Tower for 6 nights he left in the middle of the night following an altercation which involved Gogarty shooting a pistol at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.[16]​ He walked all the way back to Dublin to stay with relatives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower the next day to pack his possessions into his trunk. Shortly thereafter he eloped to the continent with Nora.

Joyce permaneció en Dublin unos meses más, continuando su relación con Nora y su proyecto literario del héroe Stephen, pero también sus borracheras. Después de una de esas crísis etílicas, se vio envuelto en una pelea callejera en St. Stephen's Green, posiblemente por un malentendido trivial [17]​, y resultó magullado. Casualmente pasaba por allí un conocido de su padre, llamado Alfred H. Hunter, que lo recogió y, en la medida de lo posible, adecentó su atuendo. También lo llevó a su casa para atender sus heridas[18]​. Se rumoreaba que este Hunter era judío, o medio judío, y que su mujer le era infiel; Joyce seguramente lo utilizó como uno de los modelos para dibujar al protagonista de Ulises, Leopold Bloom, judío que sabe que no puede volver a casa, porque su mujer está acompañada.[19]​

He took up with medical student Oliver St John Gogarty, who formed the basis for the character Buck Mulligan in Ulysses. After staying in Gogarty's Martello Tower for 6 nights he left in the middle of the night following an altercation which involved Gogarty shooting a pistol at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.[20]​ He walked all the way back to Dublin to stay with relatives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower the next day to pack his possessions into his trunk. Shortly thereafter he eloped to the continent with Nora.

Inició su relación con el estudiante de medicina Oliver St John Gogarty, que acabaría sirviéndole de modelo para el personaje de Buck Mulligan en Ulises. Gogarty vivía en una de las Torres Martello, y hospedó allí a Joyce durante seis noches. La relación terminó cuando Joyce tuvo que abandonar la torre a medianoche, mientras Gogarty disparaba una pistola contra unas cacerolas que colgaban del techo justo encima de la cama de Joyce, que tuvo que regresar a pie a Dublín, pasar la noche con unos parientes, y encargar a un amigo que fuera a la torre al día siguiente, con un baúl, para recoger sus efectos personales. Muy poco después, se fugó al continente con Nora.


1904–1920: Trieste and Zürich[editar]

1904-1920: Trieste y Zurich[editar]

Archivo:Joyce in Trieste.jpg
Joyce's statue in Trieste

Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first to Zürich, where he had supposedly acquired a post teaching English at the Berlitz Language School through an agent in England. It turned out that the English agent had been swindled, but the director of the school sent him on to Trieste, which was part of Austria-Hungary until World War I (today part of Italia). Once again, he found there was no position for him, but with the help of Almidano Artifoni, director of the Trieste Berlitz school, he finally secured a teaching position in Pula, then also part of Austria-Hungary (today part of Croatia). He stayed there, teaching English mainly to Austro-Hungarian naval officers stationed at the Pula base, from October 1904 until March 1905, when the Austrians — having discovered an espionage ring in the city — expelled all aliens. With Artifoni's help, he moved back to the city of Trieste and began teaching English there. He would remain in Trieste for most of the next 10 years.[2]​

Archivo:Joyce in Trieste.jpg
Joyce's statue in Trieste

Joyce y Nora iniciaron en Zurich su exilio auto-impuesto. Joyce creía disponer de una plaza de profesor de inglés en la Berlitz Language School, que había formalizado a través de una agencia inglesa. Pero resultó que el agente inglés había sido estafado, y no existía tal plaza. No obstante, el director de la escuela de idiomas envió a Joyce a Trieste, que hasta la I guerra mundial era parte del Imperio Austrohúngaro (actualmente está en Italia). Una vez más se encontró con que no había plaza de profesor, pero con la ayuda de Almidano Artifoni, director de la escuela Berlitz de Trieste, consiguió el puesto de profesor en Pula, que entonces también era parte del Imperio Austrohúngaro (hoy pertenece a Croacia). Allí vivió desde octubre de 1904. La mayoría de sus alumnos eran oficiales navales de la armada austrohúngara estacionada en la base de Pula. En marzo de 1905 se descubrió una red de espionaje en la ciudad, y se decidió expulsar a todos los extranjeros, lo que acabó con los seis meses de tranquilidad de Nora y James. Con la ayuda de Artifoni, pudo trasladarse a Trieste y empezar, esta vez sí, a enseñar inglés allí. Habría de permanecer en Trieste durante los diez años siguientes. [2]​


Later that year Nora gave birth to their first child, George. Joyce then managed to talk his brother, Stanislaus, into joining him in Trieste, and secured him a position teaching at the school. Ostensibly his reasons were for his company and offering his brother a much more interesting life than the simple clerking job he had back in Dublin, but in truth, he hoped to augment his family's meagre income with his brother's earnings.[21]​ Stanislaus and James had strained relations the entire time they lived together in Trieste, with most arguments centering on James' frivolity with money and drinking habits.[22]​

Algo después, en ese mismo año, Nora dio a luz a su primer hijo, George. Joyce convenció entonces a su hermano Stanislaus para que se reuniera con ellos en Trieste, y le garantizó un puesto como profesor de inglés en la escuela. Sus motivaciones aparentes eran para favorecer a Stanislaus, ofreciéndole compañía y haciéndole ver que un trabajo como profesor de inglés en Trieste daría interés y alegría a su vida, en comparación con la aburrida y triste existencia que llevaba en Dublin como simple oficinista solitario. En realidad, lo que pretendía al llevar a su hermano a Trieste era incrementar los magros ingresos de la familia, aprovechando los que añadiría su hermano; parece que James se apropió de los ingresos de su hermano como profesor, convenciéndolo de que era mejor que se ocupara de todo el dinero, "para simplificar las cosas" [23]​ Stanislaus y James tuvieron unas relaciones muy tensas durante todo el tiempo que vivieron juntos en Trieste; el tema recurrente de las discusiones era la frivolidad de James con el dinero, y su afición a la bebida [24]​


With chronic wanderlust much of his early life, Joyce became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved to Rome in late 1906, having secured a position working in a bank in the city. He intensely disliked Rome, however, and ended up moving back to Trieste in early 1907. His daughter Lucia was born in the summer of the same year.

Durante su juventud, Joyce sufrió una inquietud crónica, que no le permitía quedarse quieto. Se sintió frustrado en Trieste, y se mudó a Roma al final de 1906, habiéndose asegurado previamente de tener una posición en un banco de la ciudad. Pero Roma le desagradó profundamente, y acabó por regresar a Trieste a principios de 1907. En el verano de ese mismo año habría de nacer su hija, Lucía.



Joyce returned to Dublin in the summer of 1909 with George, in order to visit his father and work on getting Dubliners published. He visited Nora's family in Galway, meeting them for the first time (a successful visit, to his relief). When preparing to return to Trieste he decided to bring one of his sisters, Eva, back to Trieste with him in order to help Nora look after the home. He would spend only a month back in Trieste before again heading back to Dublin, this time as a representative of some cinema owners in order to set up a regular cinema in Dublin. The venture was successful (but would quickly fall apart in his absence), and he returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister in tow, Eileen. While Eva became very homesick for Dublin and returned a few years later, Eileen spent the rest of her life on the continent, eventually marrying Czech bank cashier František Schaurek.

Joyce regresó con George a Dublín en el verano de 1909. Quería visitar a su padre y conseguir la publicación de Dublineses. Visitó a la familia de Nora en Galway; para ser la primera vez que lo hacía, y en contra de sus temores, el contacto fue un éxito. Cuando se estaba preparando para volver a Trieste decidió hacerse acompañar por una de sus hermanas, Eva, con la intención de que ayudase a Nora en las labores domésticas. No habría de permanecer más de un mes en Trieste antes de volver otra vez a Dublín, esta vez como representante de un consorcio de empresarios del cine, y el encargo de establecer en su ciudad una sala fija de cine. El proyecto fue un éxito al principio, pero declinó rápidamente en cuanto Joyce se marchó de Dublín y dejó de dirigirlo, cosa que ocurrió en enero de 1910. Otra vez camino de Trieste, y otra vez llevándose allí a una hermana, Eileen. La aclimatación de las dos hermanas fue diversa: mientras que Eva padecía nostalgia de Dublín, y regresó a los pocos años, Eileen habría de pasar el resto de su vida en el continente, tras casarse con el cajero de banco checo František Schaurek.


Joyce returned to Dublin briefly in the summer of 1912 during his years-long fight with his Dublin publisher, George Roberts, over the publication of Dubliners. His trip was once again fruitless, and on his return he wrote the poem "Gas from a Burner" as a thinly veiled invective against Roberts. It was his last trip to Ireland, and he never again came closer to Dublin than London, despite the many pleas of his father and invitations from fellow Irish writer William Butler Yeats.

Siguiendo con su denodada lucha de diez años con el editor George Roberts para conseguir publicar Dublineses, Joyce hizo otro breve viaje a Dublín en el verano de 1912. Una vez más fue inútil, puesto que el editor estaba lleno de temores (esperaba reclamaciones de personas vivas mencionadas o sugeridas en los cuentos, denuncias por obscenidad, malestar de nacionalistas irlandeses y de unionistas...). A su vuelta, Joyce se vengó escribiendo la sátira en verso Gas de un mechero (Gas from a burner), una diatriba contra Roberts que luego formaría parte de la colección de poemas manzana (Pommes pennyeach).

Joyce came up with many money-making schemes during this period of his life, such as his attempt to become a cinema magnate back in Dublin, as well as a frequently discussed but ultimately abandoned plan to import Irish tweeds into Trieste. His expert borrowing skills saved him from indigence. His income was made up partially from his position at the Berlitz school and from taking on private students. Many of his acquaintances through meeting these private students proved invaluable allies when he faced problems getting out of Austria-Hungary and into Switzerland in 1915.

Joyce desarrolló en esta fase de su vida muchas iniciativas de negocio, como el ya mencionado intento de convertirse en un magnate del cine en Dublín, así como un proyecto al que le dió muchas vueltas, pero finalmente abandonó, para exportar a Trieste telas de lana (tweed) irlandesas. Con todo, si no cayó en la indigencia fue sólo gracias a su asombrosa habilidad para obtener dinero prestado. Sus ingresos estables procedían de su plaza de profesor de inglés en la Berlitz school y de lo que le pagaban algunos alumnos a los que daba clases particulares. Los contactos que consiguió a través de esta actividad le fueron de gran ayuda, tanto para conseguir préstamos muy personales como cuando necesitó ayuda para abandonar Austria-Hungría y escapar a Suiza en 1915.

One of his students in Trieste was Ettore Schmitz, better known by the pseudonym Italo Svevo; they met in 1907 and became lasting friends and mutual critics. Schmitz was Jewish, and became the primary model for Leopold Bloom; most of the details about the Jewish faith included in Ulysses came from Schmitz in response to Joyce's queries.[25]​ Joyce would spend most of the rest of his life on the Continent. It was in Trieste that he first began to be plagued by major eye problems, which would result in over a dozen surgeries before his death.

Uno de estos estudiantes de Trieste era el escritor italiano Ettore Schmitz, mejor conocido por el seudónimo Italo Svevo. Se conocieron en 1907 y llegaron a ser amigos durante largo tiempo, y cada uno sagaz crítico literario del otro. Schmitz era judío, y sirvió de modelo para Leopold Bloom. La mayoría de los pormenores sobre el judaísmo incluidos en Ulises los obtuvo preguntando a Schmitz.[26]​ Joyce pasaría la mayor parte del resto de su vida en el continente. Fue en Trieste donde empezó a sufrir graves problemas en los ojos, por los que fue operado más de una docena de veces antes de morir.

In 1915, when Joyce moved to Zürich in order to avoid the complexities (as a British subject) of living in Austria-Hungary during World War I, he met one of his most enduring and important friends, Frank Budgen, whose opinion Joyce constantly sought through the writing of Ulysses and Finnegans Wake. It was also here where Ezra Pound brought him to the attention of English feminist and publisher Harriet Shaw Weaver, who would become Joyce's patron, providing him thousands of pounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the burden of teaching in order to focus on his writing. After the war he returned to Trieste briefly, but found the city had changed, and his relations with his brother (who had been interned in an Austrian prison camp for most of the war due to his pro-Italian politics) were more strained than ever. Joyce headed to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from Ezra Pound, supposedly for a week, but he ended up living there for the next twenty years.

En 1915, cuando Joyce se trasladó a Zurich para eludir los problemas que, como ciudadano británico, le suponía seguir viviendo en Austria-Hungría durante la primera guerra mundial, conoció a otro de sus amigos más importantes y duraderos, el pintor Frank Budgen, cuya opinión Joyce requirió constantemente durante la redacción de Ulises y de Finnegans Wake. Fue también en Zurich donde Ezra Pound consiguió para Joyce el que habría de ser probablemente su contacto profesional más provechoso, la feminista y editora Harriet Shaw Weaver, que acabaría convirtiéndose en su apoderada y mecenas, financiándolo con miles de libras durante los siguientes veinticinco años, y liberándolo de la pesada carga de la enseñanza, de modo que pudiera dedicarse exclusivamente a escribir. Después de la guerra volvió brevemente a Trieste, pero encontró muy cambiada la ciudad, y la tensión de las relaciones con su hermano (que había pasado la mayor parte de la guerra en un campo de concentración austriaco debido a su tendencia pro-italiana) se hizo más grave que nunca. Joyce aceptó en 1920 la invitación de Ezra Pound para pasar una semana en París, y acabó viviendo allí los siguientes veinte años.

1920–1941: Paris and Zürich[editar]

1920-1941: París y Zurich[editar]

During this era, Joyce traveled frequently to Switzerland for eye surgeries and treatments for Lucia, who, according to the Joyce estate, suffered from schizophrenia. In her 2003 work, Lucia Joyce: To Dance in the Wake, Carol Loeb Shloss alleges that there may have been incest between Lucia and her father and quite possibly between Lucia and her brother Georgio.[27]​ She cites the admission of the current heir of the Joyce estate, Stephen Joyce, that he burned thousands of letters between Lucia and her father that he received upon Lucia's death in 1982.[28]​ There is much correspondence of Joyce's showing that Lucia was his muse in Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Ulysses, and Finnegans Wake. All three works include a voyeuristic father with a libidinal interest in nubile pre-pubescent and adolescent girls—very often his own daughter.[29]​ Finnegans Wake ends with a father having sex with his daughter.[30]​ There is correspondence from Joyce proving that he spoke with Lucia in a language similar to that of the fragmented multi-language style in Finnegans Wake. There is much evidence that Lucia was not diagnosed with schizophrenia by several doctors. In fact, she was analyzed by Carl Jung who was of the opinion that her father was a schizophrenic after reading Ulysses.[31]​ Jung noted that she and her father were two people heading to the bottom of a river, except that he was diving and she was falling.[32]​[33]​

Durante esta época, Joyce viajó frecuentemente a Suiza para obtener tratamiento quirúrgico para sus problemas de visión (a lo largo de su vida fue operado XX veces de los ojos) y psiquiátrico para su hija Lucía, a la que se suponía esquizofrénica. En su obra Lucia Joyce: To dance in the wake(Lucia Joyce: bailar en el funeral), publicada en 2003, Carol Loeb Shloss sugiere que la relación entre padre e hija, y muy posiblemente entre Lucía y su hermano Giorgio, podría tener algo de incestuoso.[34]​ La autora, profesora de literatura de la Universidad de Stanford, dice en su libro que Stephen James Joyce, nieto y único heredero del autor, ha declarado haber destruido miles (!) de cartas entre Lucía y James Joyce, a las que tuvo acceso tras la muerte de Lucia en 1982[35]​ Existen numerosas cartas que demuestran que Lucía tuvo gran influencia en la creación de Retrato del artista adolescente, Ulises y Finnegan's Wake. En las tres obras aparece un padre voyeur con equívoco interés en niñas pre-núbiles o adolescentes, y frecuentemente en su propia hija.[36]​ Finnegan's wake termina con un padre teniendo sexo con su hija. [37]​. Por otro lado, hay cartas que demuestran que Joyce hablaba con Lucia en una jerga similar al lenguaje fragmentado multilíngüe que utiliza Joyce en Finnegan's Wake. Hay pruebas de que diversos especialistas que analizaron a Lucía no diagnosticaron su problema como esquizofrenia. De hecho, ella fue analizada por Carl Jung, que concluyó, tras leer el Ulises, que era su padre el que padecía esquizofrenia[38]​. Jung concluyó que tanto Lucia y su padre "eran dos personas dirigidas al fondo de un río; con la diferencia de que él nadaba, y ella se hundía".[39]​[40]​


In Paris, Maria and Eugene Jolas nursed Joyce during his long years of writing Finnegans Wake. Were it not for their unwavering support (along with Harriet Shaw Weaver's constant financial support), there is a good possibility that his books might never have been finished or published. In their now legendary literary magazine "transition," the Jolases published serially various sections of Joyce's novel under the title Work in Progress. He returned to Zürich in late 1940, fleeing the Nazi occupation of France. On 11 January 1941, he underwent surgery for a perforated ulcer. While at first improved, he relapsed the following day, and despite several transfusions, fell into a coma. He awoke at 2 a.m. on 13 January 1941, and asked for a nurse to call his wife and son before losing consciousness again. They were still en route when he died 15 minutes later. He is buried in the Fluntern Cemetery within earshot of the lions in the Zürich zoo - Nora's offer to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains was declined by the Irish government. Nora, whom he had finally married in London in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried now by his side, as is their son George, who died in 1976. Ellmann reports that when the arrangements for Joyce's burial were being made, a Catholic priest tried to convince Nora that there should be a funeral Mass. Ever loyal, she replied, 'I couldn't do that to him'.

En París, Maria y Eugene Jolas cuidaron a

Major works[editar]

The title page of the first edition of Dubliners.

Dubliners[editar]

Artículo principal: Dubliners

Joyce's Irish experiences constitute an essential element of his writings, and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of their subject matter. His early volume of short stories, Dubliners, is a penetrating analysis of the stagnation and paralysis of Dublin society. The final and most famous story in the collection, "The Dead," was made into a feature film in 1987, directed by John Huston (it was Huston's last major work).

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man[editar]

Artículo principal: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a nearly complete rewrite of the abandoned novel Stephen Hero, the original manuscript of which Joyce partially destroyed in a fit of rage during an argument with Nora, in which she asserted that it would never be published. A Künstlerroman, or story of the personal development of an artist, it is a biographical coming-of-age novel in which Joyce depicts a gifted young man's gradual attainment of maturity and self-consciousness; the main character, Stephen Dedalus, is in many ways based upon Joyce himself.[41]​ Some hints of the techniques Joyce was to frequently employ in later works — such as the use of interior monologue and references to a character's psychic reality rather than his external surroundings — are evident in this novel.[42]​ Joseph Strick directed a film of the book in 1977 starring Luke Johnston, Bosco Hogan, T.P. McKenna and John Gielgud.

Exiles and poetry[editar]

Artículo principal: Chamber Music (book)

Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of World War I in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband and wife relationship, the play looks back to The Dead (the final story in Dubliners) and forward to Ulysses, which was begun around the time of the play's composition.

Joyce also published a number of books of poetry. His first mature published work was the satirical broadside "The Holy Office" (1904), in which he proclaimed himself to be the superior of many prominent members of the Celtic revival. His first full-length poetry collection Chamber Music (referring, Joyce explained, to the sound of urine hitting the side of a chamber pot) consisted of 36 short lyrics. This publication led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, who was a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes "Gas From A Burner" (1912), Pomes Penyeach (1927) and "Ecce Puer" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). It was published in Collected Poems (1936).

Ulysses[editar]

Artículo principal: Ulysses (novel)
Archivo:Order form for ulysses.jpg
Announcement of the initial publication of Ulysses.

As he was completing work on Dubliners in 1906, Joyce considered adding another story featuring a Jewish advertising canvasser called Leopold Bloom under the title Ulysses. Although he did not pursue the idea further at the time, he eventually commenced work on a novel using both the title and basic premise in 1914. The writing was completed in October, 1921. Three more months were devoted to working on the proofs of the book before Joyce halted work shortly before his self-imposed deadline, his 40th birthday (2 February 1922).

Thanks to Ezra Pound, serial publication of the novel in the magazine The Little Review began in 1918. This magazine was edited by Margaret Anderson and Jane Heap, with the backing of John Quinn, a New York attorney at law with an interest in contemporary experimental art and literature. Unfortunately, this publication encountered censorship problems in the Estados Unidos; serialization was halted in 1920 when the editors were convicted of publishing obscenity. The novel remained proscribed in the United States until Judge John M. Woolsey lifted the ban in 1933.

At least partly because of this controversy, Joyce found it difficult to get a publisher to accept the book, but it was published in 1922 by Sylvia Beach from her well-known Rive Gauche bookshop, Shakespeare and Company at 12 Rue l'Odéon, Paris. A commemorative plaque placed in 1989 by JJSSF (James Joyce Society of Sweden and Finland) is to be found on the wall. An English edition published the same year by Joyce's patron, Harriet Shaw Weaver, ran into further difficulties with the United States authorities, and 500 copies that were shipped to the States were seized and possibly destroyed. The following year, John Rodker produced a print run of 500 more intended to replace the missing copies, but these were burned by English customs at Folkestone. A further consequence of the novel's ambiguous legal status as a banned book was that a number of 'bootleg' versions appeared, most notably a number of pirate versions from the publisher Samuel Roth. In 1928, a court injunction against Roth was obtained and he ceased publication.

The year 1922 was a key year in the history of English-language literary modernism, with the appearance of both Ulysses and T. S. Eliot's poem, The Waste Land. In Ulysses, Joyce employs stream of consciousness, parody, jokes, and virtually every other literary technique to present his characters.[43]​ The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, 16 June 1904, sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey of Homer in modern Dublin and represents Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus, contrasted with their lofty models. The book explores various areas of Dublin life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Nevertheless, the book is also an affectionately detailed study of the city, and Joyce said that "I want to give a picture of Dublin so complete that if the city one day suddenly disappeared from the earth it could be reconstructed out of my book".[44]​ In order to achieve this level of accuracy, Joyce used the 1904 edition of Thom's Directory — a work that listed the owners and/or tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city. He also bombarded friends still living there with requests for information and clarification.

The book consists of 18 chapters, each covering roughly one hour of the day, beginning around about 8 a.m. and ending sometime after 2 a.m. the following morning. Each of the 18 chapters of the novel employs its own literary style. Each chapter also refers to a specific episode in Homer's Odyssey and has a specific colour, art or science and bodily organ associated with it. This combination of kaleidoscopic writing with an extreme formal, schematic structure represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th century modernist literature.[45]​ The use of classical mythology as a framework for his book and the near-obsessive focus on external detail in a book in which much of the significant action is happening inside the minds of the characters are others. Nevertheless, Joyce complained that, "I may have oversystematised Ulysses," and played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles that had been taken from Homer.[46]​

Joseph Strick directed a film of the book in 1967 starring Milo O'Shea, Barbara Jefford and Maurice Roëves. Sean Walsh directed another version released in 2004 starring Stephen Rea, Angeline Ball and Hugh O'Conor.

Finnegans Wake[editar]

Artículo principal: Finnegans Wake

Having completed work on Ulysses, Joyce was so exhausted that he did not write a line of prose for a year.[47]​ On 10 March 1923 he informed a patron, Harriet Weaver: "Yesterday I wrote two pages — the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses. Having found a pen, with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them. Il lupo perde il pelo ma non il vizio, the Italians say. The wolf may lose his skin but not his vice or the leopard cannot change his spots".[48]​ Thus was born a text that became known, first, as Work in Progress and later Finnegans Wake.

By 1926 Joyce had completed the first two parts of the book. In that year, he met Eugene and Maria Jolas who offered to serialise the book in their magazine transition. For the next few years, Joyce worked rapidly on the new book, but in the 1930s, progress slowed considerably. This was due to a number of factors, including the death of his father in 1931, concern over the mental health of his daughter Lucia and his own health problems, including failing eyesight. Much of the work was done with the assistance of younger admirers, including Samuel Beckett. For some years, Joyce nursed the eccentric plan of turning over the book to his friend James Stephens to complete, on the grounds that Stephens was born in the same hospital as Joyce exactly one week later, and shared the first name of both Joyce and of Joyce's fictional alter-ego (this is one example of Joyce's numerous superstitions).[49]​

Reaction to the work was mixed, including negative comment from early supporters of Joyce's work, such as Pound and the author's brother Stanislaus Joyce.[50]​ In order to counteract this hostile reception, a book of essays by supporters of the new work, including Beckett, William Carlos Williams and others was organised and published in 1929 under the title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress. At his 47th birthday party at the Jolases' home, Joyce revealed the final title of the work and Finnegans Wake was published in book form on 4 May 1939.

Joyce's method of stream of consciousness, literary allusions and free dream associations was pushed to the limit in Finnegans Wake, which abandoned all conventions of plot and character construction and is written in a peculiar and obscure language, based mainly on complex multi-level puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky. If Ulysses is a day in the life of a city, then Wake is a night and partakes of the logic of dreams. This has led many readers and critics to apply Joyce's oft-quoted description in the Wake of Ulysses as his "usylessly unreadable Blue Book of Eccles"[51]​ to the Wake itself. However, readers have been able to reach a consensus about the central cast of characters and general plot.

Much of the wordplay in the book stems from the use of multilingual puns which draw on a wide range of languages. The role played by Beckett and other assistants included collating words from these languages on cards for Joyce to use and, as Joyce's eyesight worsened, of writing the text from the author's dictation.[52]​

The view of history propounded in this text is very strongly influenced by Giambattista Vico, and the metaphysics of Giordano Bruno of Nola are important to the interplay of the "characters". Vico propounded a cyclical view of history, in which civilisation rose from chaos, passed through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapsed back into chaos. The most obvious example of the influence of Vico's cyclical theory of history is to be found in the opening and closing words of the book. Finnegans Wake opens with the words 'riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs.' ('vicus' is a pun on Vico) and ends 'A way a lone a last a loved a long the'. In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the book into one great cycle. Indeed, Joyce said that the ideal reader of the Wake would suffer from "ideal insomnia"[53]​ and, on completing the book, would turn to page one and start again, and so on in an endless cycle of reading.

Legacy[editar]

Véase también: Postmodern literature
Statue of James Joyce on North Earl Street, Dublin.

Joyce's work has been subject to intense scrutiny by scholars of all types. He has also been an important influence on writers and scholars as diverse as Samuel Beckett,[54]​ Jorge Luis Borges,[55]​ Flann O'Brien,[56]​ Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Salman Rushdie,[57]​ Robert Anton Wilson,[58]​ and Joseph Campbell.[59]​

Some scholars, most notably Vladimir Nabokov, have mixed feelings on his work, often championing some of his fiction while condemning other works. In Nabokov's opinion, Ulysses was brilliant;[60]​ Finnegans Wake, horrible (see Strong Opinions, The Annotated Lolita or Pale Fire[61]​), an attitude Jorge Luis Borges shared.[62]​ In recent years, literary theory has embraced Joyce's innovation and ambition. Jacques Derrida tells an anecdote about the two novels' importance for his own thought; in a bookstore in Tokyo,

...an American tourist of the most typical variety leaned over my shoulder and sighed: "So many books! What is the definitive one? Is there any?" It was an extremely small book shop, a news agency. I almost replied, "Yes, there are two of them, Ulysses and Finnegans Wake.[63]​

Joyce's influence is also evident in fields other than literature. The phrase "Three Quarks for Muster Mark" in Joyce's Finnegans Wake is often called the source of the physicists' word "quark", the name of one of the main kinds of elementary particles, proposed by the physicist Murray Gell-Mann.[64]​ The French philosopher Jacques Derrida has written a book on the use of language in Ulysses, and the American philosopher Donald Davidson has written similarly on Finnegans Wake in comparison with Lewis Carroll. Additionally, the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan used Joyce's writings to explain his concept of the sinthome. According to Lacan, Joyce's writing is the supplementary cord which kept him from psychosis.[65]​

The life of Joyce is celebrated annually on June 16, Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.

Each year in Dedham, Massachusetts, USA literary-minded runners hold the James Joyce Ramble, a 10K Road Race with each mile dedicated to a different work by Joyce.[66]​ With professional actors in period garb lining the streets and reading from his books as the athletes run by, it is billed as the only theatrical performance where the performers stand still and the audience does the moving.

Much of Joyce's legacy is protected by the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas, which houses thousands of manuscripts, pieces of correspondence, drafts, proofs, notes, novel fragments, poems, song lyrics, musical scores, limericks, and translations by Joyce.

Not everyone is eager to expand upon academic study of Joyce, however; Stephen Joyce, James' grandson and sole beneficiary owner of the estate, has been alleged to have destroyed some of the writer's correspondence,[67]​ threatened to sue if public readings were held during Bloomsday,[68]​ and blocked adaptations he felt were 'inappropriate'.[69]​ On June 12 2006, Carol Shloss, a Stanford University professor, sued the estate for refusing to give permission to use material about Joyce and his daughter on the professor's website.[70]​[71]​

The main library at University College Dublin today, bears his name.

Works[editar]

Bust of James Joyce in St. Stephen's Green, Dublin.

Notes[editar]

  1. ↑ Los títulos Ulises (en inglés Ulysses) y Dublineses (en inglés Dubliners) se traducen al castellano sin ningún problema. Retrato del artista adolescente es en inglés A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, literalmente Retrato del artista como un hombre joven, pero se ha consagrado en español el adjetivo adolescente; en francés a veces se titula el libro con el nombre de su protagonista, Dedalus. Los problemas de traducción de Finnegans Wake comienzan por el propio título; suele respetarse el original.
  2. ↑ a b c d McCourt, John (May 2001). The Years of Bloom: James Joyce in Trieste, 1904-1920. The Lilliput Press. ISBN 1901866718. 
  3. ↑ Asked why he was afraid of thunder when his children weren't, "'Ah,' said Joyce in contempt, 'they have no religion.' His fears were part of his identity, and he had no wish, even if he had had the power, to slough any of them off." (Ellmann, p. 514).
  4. ↑ Preguntado por su miedo al trueno, haciéndole ver que, al revés de lo habitual, sus hijos pequeños no lo padecían y él sí, contestó que era porque sus hijos "no tenían religión". Sus miedos eran parte de su identidad, y decía no tener ningún deseo de deshacerse de ellos, aunque ello hubiera sido posible (Ellman, p. 514)
  5. ↑ Ellmann, p. 132.
  6. ↑ Ellmann, p. 30, 55.
  7. ↑ Ellman, p. 30, 55
  8. ↑ She was originally diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver, but this proved incorrect, and she was diagnosed with cancer in April, 1903 (Ellmann, p. 128–129).
  9. ↑ Ellmann, pp. 129, 136.
  10. ↑ History of the Feis Ceoil Association. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
  11. ↑ el diagnóstico inicial fue de cirrosis hepática, pero luego se vio que era incorrecto, y en abril de 1903 se detectó el cáncer (Ellmann, p. 128–129).
  12. ↑ Ellmann, pp. 129, 136.
  13. ↑ Historia de la asociación Feis Ceoil (en inglés) Vínculo comprobado el 20-12-2007
  14. ↑ Ellmann, p. 162.
  15. ↑ Ellmann, p. 230.
  16. ↑ Ellmann, p. 175.
  17. ↑ Dada su forma de vida, tuvo varios altercados. Se cree que Hunter lo atendió cuando estaba herido por los puñetazos recibidos de un militar airado: Joyce había piropeado con vulgaridad a una mujer, sin reparar en que iba acompañada
  18. ↑ Ellmann, p. 162.
  19. ↑ Ellmann, p. 230.
  20. ↑ Ellmann, p. 175.
  21. ↑ According to Ellmann, Stanislaus allowed James to collect his pay, "to simplify matters" (p. 213).
  22. ↑ The worst of the conflicts were in July, 1910 (Ellmann, pp. 311–313).
  23. ↑ Así lo cuenta Ellman, p.213
  24. ↑ El peor conflicto ocurrió en julio de 1910 (Ellmann, pp. 311–313).
  25. ↑ Ellmann, p. 272.
  26. ↑ Ellmann, p. 272.
  27. ↑ Shloss pp.69,288,443
  28. ↑ Stanley, Alessandra. "Poet Told All; Therapist Provides the Record," The New York Times, July 15, 1991. Retrieved 9 July 2007.
  29. ↑ Shloss, p.429
  30. ↑ Finnegans Wake, pp.622, 626
  31. ↑ Shloss, p.278
  32. ↑ Pepper, Tara
  33. ↑ Shloss p.297
  34. ↑ Shloss pp.69,288,443
  35. ↑ Stanley, Alessandra. "Poet Told All; Therapist Provides the Record," The New York Times, July 15, 1991. Retrieved 9 July 2007.
  36. ↑ Shloss, p.429
  37. ↑ Finnegans Wake, pp.622, 626
  38. ↑ Shloss, p.278
  39. ↑ Pepper, Tara
  40. ↑ Shloss p.297
  41. ↑ MacBride, P. 14.
  42. ↑ Deming, p, 749.
  43. ↑ Examined at length in Vladimir Nabokov's Lectures on Ulysses. A Facsimile of the Manuscript.
  44. ↑ Budgen, p. 69.
  45. ↑ Sherry, p. 102.
  46. ↑ Dettmar, p. 285.
  47. ↑ Bulson, Eric. The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Page 14.
  48. ↑ Joyce, James. Ulysses: The 1922 Text. Oxford University Press, 1998. Page xlvii.
  49. ↑ Ellmann, pp. 591–592
  50. ↑ Ellmann, pp. 577–585, 603.
  51. ↑ Finnegans Wake, 179.26–27.
  52. ↑ Gluck, p. 27.
  53. ↑ Finnegans Wake, 120.9–16.
  54. ↑ Friedman, Melvin J. A review of Barbara Reich Gluck's Beckett and Joyce: friendship and fiction, Bucknell University Press (June 1979), ISBN 0-8387-2060-9. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
  55. ↑ Williamson, 123–124, 179, 218.
  56. ↑ For example, Hopper, p. 75, says "In all of O'Brien's work the figure of Joyce hovers on the horizon …".
  57. ↑ Interview of Salmon Rushdie, by Margot Dijkgraaf for the Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad, translated by K. Gwan Go. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
  58. ↑ Edited transcript of an April 23, 1988 interview of Robert Anton Wilson by David A. Banton, broadcast on HFJC, 89.7 FM, Los Altos Hills, California. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
  59. ↑ "About Joseph Campbell", Joseph Campbell Foundation. Retrieved 3 December 2006.
  60. ↑ "When I want good reading I reread Proust's A la Recherche du Temps Perdu or Joyce's Ulysses" (Nabokov, letter to Elena Sikorski, August 3, 1950, in Nabokov's Butterflies: Unpublished and Uncollected Writings [Boston: Beacon, 2000], 464–465.
  61. ↑ "Of course, it would have been unseemly for a monarch to appear in the robes of learning at a university lectern and present to rosy youths Finnigan's Wake [sic] as a monstrous extension of Angus MacDiarmid's "incoherent transactions" and of Southey's Lingo-Grande. . ." (Nabokov, Pale Fire [New York: Random House, 1962], p. 76).
  62. ↑ Borges, p. 195.
  63. ↑ Derrida, "Ulysses Gramophone: Hear Say Yes in Joyce" (in Acts of Literature, ed. Derek Attridge [New York: Routledge, 1992], pp. 253–309), p. 265.
  64. ↑ "quark", American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition 2000.
  65. ↑ Evans, Dylan, An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoanalysis, Routledge, 1996, p.189
  66. ↑ James Joyce Ramble. Retrieved 28 November 2006.
  67. ↑ Max, "The Injustice Collector".
  68. ↑ Max, D.T., "The Injustice Collector: Is James Joyce’s Grandson Suppressing Scholarship?," The New Yorker, 19 June 2006. Retrieved 9 July 2007.
  69. ↑ Cavanaugh, "Ulysses Unbound".
  70. ↑ Schloss. Stanford Law School, The Center for Internet and Society. June 12, 2006, Retrieved on 28 November 2006.
  71. ↑ Associated Press. Professor sues James Joyce’s estate: Carol Schloss wants right to use copyrighted material on her Web site. MSNBC. 12 June 2006, Retrieved 28 November 2006.

References[editar]

General

Ulysses

  • Blamires, Harry. "The New Bloomsday Book: A Guide through Ulysses." Routledge. ISBN 0-415--00704-6.
  • Groden, Michael "Ulysses" in Progress. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977. Paperback Edition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987.
  • Kenner, Hugh. "Ulysses". London: George Allen and Unwin. 1980. ISBN 0-04-800003-5.
  • Mood, John. Joyce's "Ulysses" for Everyone, Or How to Skip Reading It the First Time. Bloomington, Indiana: Author House, 2004. ISBN 1-4184-5104-5

Finnegans Wake

External links[editar]

General

Dubliners

Ulysses

Finnegans Wake (web)

Poems and Exiles


<<<<<<<< OLIVER JOSEPH ST JOHN GOGARTY <<<<<<<<<<< Oliver Joseph St John Gogarty (August 17, 1878 - September 22, 1957) was an Irish physician and ear surgeon, who was also a poet and writer, one of the most prominent Dublin wits, a football player for Bohemian F.C., and for some time a political figure of the Irish Free State. He is perhaps now best known as the inspiration for Buck Mulligan in James Joyce's novel Ulysses.

Oliver Joseph St John Gogarty (17 de agosto 1878 - 22 de septiembre 1957 fue un médico irlandés, especialista en cirugía del oído. Fue muchas más cosas: poeta y escritor, uno de los más ingeniosos humoristas de Dublín, jugador de fútbol en el Bohemian F.C. y durante algún tiempo figura política del Estado Libre Irlandés. Con todo, es probable que actualmente sea conocido sobre todo por haber servido de modelo a James Joyce para crear el personaje de Buck Mulligan en su novela Ulises

Born at 5 Rutland (now Parnell) Square in Dublin, Gogarty was a medical student (at Trinity College Dublin) and joker who wrote humorous verse and stories and belonged to the latter period of the Irish Literary Revival. His verse was admired by W. B. Yeats who included more poems by Gogarty than any other poet in his Oxford Book of English Verse. He had a strained relationship with Joyce that ended when Joyce left Ireland; Gogarty claimed a gun was involved. One of his best known bits of doggerel, The Ballad of Japing Jesus, was quoted in the first chapter of Ulysses as the Ballad of Joking Jesus.

Nacido en el número 5 de la calle Rutland, actualmente Parnell, en Dublín, Gogarty estudió medicina en el Trinity College Dublin al tiempo que ejercía como humorista escribiendo numerosos versos cómicos e historias, pudiendo atribuírsele la pertenencia al último período del Renacimiento literario irlandés. Su poesía mereció la admiración de W.B. Yeats, que incluyó más poemas de Gogarty que de ningún otro poeta en su Oxford Book of English Verse. Mantuvo una tensa relación con Joyce, que terminó cuando el autor del Ulises abandonó Irlanda; Gogarty decía que una pistola había tenido que ver con la ruptura. Uno de sus piezas de poesía intencionadamente ripiosas, La balada del jovial Jesús, se cita en el primer capítulo de Ulises[1]​

In 1924, Gogarty won the bronze medal at the Olympic Games for his poem Ode to the Tailteann Games.

En 1924 Gogarty ganó la medalla de bronce en el certamen de arte asociado a los Juegos Olímpicos, con su poema Oda a los Juegos Tailteanos

Gogarty's 1937 memoir As I Was Going Down Sackville Street resulted in a libel lawsuit. Henry Sinclair, an uncle of Samuel Beckett's, claimed that Gogarty characterized his grandfather, Morris Harris, as a usurer. The trial received a fair amount of public attention at the time, and the as-yet-unknown Beckett filed one of two affidavits on behalf of his uncle's lawsuit and played a key role in the trial proper, which Gogarty ultimately lost.

Sus memorias de 1937, tituladas As I Was Going Down Sackville Street (Mientras bajaba por la calle Sackville) le acarrearon un proceso judicial por difamación. Un tío de Samuel Beckett, Henry Sinclair, denunció que Gogarty calumniaba a su abuelo. Morris Harris, tildándolo de usurero. El juicio tuvo bastante notoriedad pública, y el todavía desconocido Beckett presentó una de las dos declaraciones juradas en apoyo de su tío, y su actuación fue determinante en un proceso que, finalmente, Gogarty perdió.

In later life, he moved widely in British society, and the USA. He died in New York City. A pub in the Temple Bar, Dublin district of Dublin is named after him.

Posteriormente, Gogarty se movió intensamente en la sociedad británica, y también en Estados Unidos. Murió en la ciudad de Nueva York. Un pub del distrito Temple Bar de Dublín lleva su nombre.

Obras[editar]

  • An Offering of Swans (1923)
  • Wild Apples (1928)
  • As I Was Going down Sackville Street (1937)
  • Others to Adorn (1938)
  • I Follow St Patrick (1938)
  • Intimations (1950)
  • It Isn't This Time of Year at All! (1954)
  • Tumbling in the Hay
  • Collected Poems (1954)
  • A Week End in the Middle of the Week (1958)
  • Oliver St. John Gogarty (1963), is a biography by Ulick O'Connor

Enlaces externos[editar]

References[editar]

Referencias[editar]

  • Knowlson, James; Beckett, Samuel (1996). Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett. London: Bloomsbury. 
  • Knowlson, James; Beckett, Samuel (1996). Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett. Londres, Bloomsbury. 

<<<<<<<< FRANK BUDGEN <<<<<<<<<<< Frank Budgen (1882-1971) was a painter in World War I Switzerland acquainted with the author James Joyce. Born in Surrey, Budgen spent six years at sea before working in London as a postal worker. He changed jobs a number of times before travelling to Paris in 1910 to study painting, moving to Switzerland in time for World War I. Here he was employed by the British government at the Ministry of Information, an institution established in Zürich for "the spread of British propaganda in neutral countries." He returned to London in 1920, where he remained until his death.

Frank Budgen (1882-1971) fue un pintor inglés residente en Suiza durante la primera guerra mundial. Se lo recuerda sobre todo por su amistad con el escritor James Joyce y su influencia en su obra. Budgen nació en Surrey, Inglaterra, pasó seis años embarcado y posteriormente trabajó como empleado del servicio de correos, en Londres. Siguió cambiando de trabajo otras veces antes de viajar a París en 1910 para estudiar pintura, y después a Suiza, durante la primera guerra mundial. En Suiza fue contratado por el Ministerio de Información del gobierno británico, institución establecida en Zürich con el objetivo de difundir la propaganda británica en las naciones neutrales. Volvió a Londres en 1920, donde permaneció hasta su muerte.

Joyce and Budgen spent much of the war in the same city and similar social circles. According to Budgen's 1934 memoir James Joyce and the making of Ulysses, Joyce discussed aesthetic matters with Budgen a number of times, often referring to the content of Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Ulysses and Finnegans Wake. The latter of these two, Budgen stated, Joyce referred to at the time as Work in Progress; indeed a number of the conversation he reports as having had with Joyce imply that the author was working out the form and content of this work in part by arguing with Budgen.

Joyce y Budgen pasaron gran parte de la guerra en la misma ciudad, y frecuentando círculos sociales análogos. En 1934 Budgen escribió James Joyce y la gestación de Ulises (James Joyce and the making of Ulysses), ensayo en el que sostiene que Joyce discutía con él sobre temas de estética, frecuentemente referidos al contenido de El retrato del artista adolescente, Ulises y Finnegan's Wake, si bien Joyce se refería a esta última como Work in progress (trabajo en curso). Incluso sugiere que Joyce decidía la forma y fondo de sus trabajos, en parte, a través de sus discusiones con Budgen.

<<<<<<<< HARRIET SHAW WEAVER <<<<<<<<<<< Harriet Shaw Weaver (1 September 1876 — 14 October 1961) was a political activist and a journal editor. She also became the patron of James Joyce.

Harriet Shaw Weaver (1 September 1876 — 14 October 1961) fue una activista política y editora de revistas. Es conocida sobre todo por haber sido mecenas de James Joyce

Harriet Shaw Weaver was born in Frodsham, Cheshire, the daughter of Frederic Poynton Weaver, a doctor, and Mary Wright, who had inherited a fortune from her father. She was educated privately by a governess, initially in Cheshire and later in Hampstead. Her parents denied her wish to go to university and she decided to embark on social work. After attending a course on the economic basis of social relations at the London School of Economics she became involved in women's suffrage and joined the Women's Social and Political Union.

Harriet Shaw Weaver nació en Frodsham (Cheshire), hija de Frederic Poynton Weaver, médico de ese distrito, y de Mary Wright, rica heredera. Fue educada en casa, por una institutriz, al principio en Cheshire y luego en Hampstead. Sus padres se negaron a permitir que ingresara en la universidad, como era su deseo, ante lo que ella decidió dedicarse al trabajo social. Después de asistir en la London School of Economics a un curso sobre los fundamentos económicos de las relaciones sociales, se implicó en el movimiento sufragista y se unió a la Women's Social and Political Union

In 1911 she began subscribing to The Freewoman: A Weekly Feminist Review, a radical periodical edited by Dora Marsden and Mary Gawthorpe. The following year its proprietors withdrew their support from it and Weaver stepped in to save it from financial ruin. In 1913 it was renamed The New Freewoman. Later that year at the suggestion of the magazine's literary editor, Ezra Pound, the name was changed again to The Egoist. During the following years Weaver made more financial donations to the periodical, becoming more involved with its organisation and also becoming its editor.

En 1911 se suscribió a "Freewoman", un semanario feminista editado por Dora Marsden y Mary Gawthorpe. Al año siguiente, los propietarios de la publicación dejaron de apoyarla económicamente, y Weaver intervino para salvarla de la quiebra. En 1913 la revista cambió dos veces de nombre, pasando primero a llamarse The New Freewoman y luego, siguiendo la sugerencia de Ezra Pound, The Egoist. En los años siguientes Weaver aportó más dinero, se implicó cada vez más en la gestión, y acabó convirtiéndose en editora de la revista.

Ezra Pound was involved with finding new contributors and one of these was James Joyce. Weaver was convinced of his genius and started to support him, first by serialising A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in The Egoist in 1914. When Joyce could not find anyone to publish it as a book, Weaver set up the Egoist Press for this purpose at her own expense. Joyce's Ulysses was then serialised in The Egoist but because of its controversial content it was rejected by all the printers approached by Weaver and she arranged for it to be printed abroad. Weaver continued to give considerable support to Joyce and his family but following her reservations about his work that was to become Finnegans Wake, their relationship became strained and then virtually broken. However on Joyce's death, Weaver paid for his funeral and acted as his executor.

Ezra Pound participaba en la búsqueda de nuevos colaboradores, y uno de sus fichajes fue James Joyce. Weaver quedó convencida de su genio, y empezó a apoyarlo publicando por entregas en 1914 en The Egoist el Retrato de un artista adolescente. Continuó ayudándolo, llegando a financiar la creación de una editorial (The Egoist Press) para publicar el Retrato como libro. Volvió a ofrecer las páginas de la revista para publicar por entregas Ulises, pero las controversias suscitadas por esta obra asustaron a los impresores británicos, y ninguno quiso que saliera de sus prensas; eso no la arredró, y se las arregló para imprimir el Ulises en el extranjero. Weaver continuó dando apoyo a Joyce y a su familia, pero desde el principio estuvo en desacuerdo con los textos que habrían de convertirse en Finnegan's Wake (su título inicial era Work in Progress, Obra en curso), y su rechazo fue tan firme como había sido hasta entonces su apoyo, lo que tensó su relación con Joyce, hasta llegar prácticamente a la ruptura, lo que no impidió que a la muerte del escritor Weaver pagara su funeral, y fuera su albacea.

In 1931 Weaver joined the Labour Party but then, having been influenced by reading Marx's Das Kapital she joined the Communist Party in 1938. She was active in this organisation, taking part in demonstrations and selling copies of the Daily Worker. She also continued her allegiance to the memory of Joyce, acting as his literary executor and helping to compile The Letters of James Joyce. She died at her home near Saffron Walden in 1961, leaving her collection of literary material to the British Library and to the National Book League.

En 1931 Weaver se afilió al Partido Laborista. En 1938, influenciada por la lectura de El Capital de Marx, entró en el Partido Comunista. Fue una militante comunista activa, que participaba en manifestaciones y en la venta de ejemplares del Daily Worker. Mantuvo también su compromiso con la memoria de Joyce, actuando como su albacea literario, y ayudando a compilar su correspondencia en The Letters of James Joyce. Murió en 1961 en su casa, cercana a Saffron Walden, dejando un legado de material literario a la Biblioteca Británica y a la National Book League.

References[editar]

Referencias[editar]

La versión del XXX de este artículo es traducción del artículo de Wikipedia en inglés, en su versión del YYY. Las dos referencias que siguen son las citadas en dicho original

<< Our Exagmination Round His Factification For Incamination Of Work In Progress << Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress (frecuentemente abreviada como Our Exag) es una colección de ensayos críticos acerca de Finnegans Wake, la última novela de James Joyce. Se publicó en 1929, diez años antes que la propia obra glosada, de la que todavía no se había revelado el título, utilizando Joyce Work in Progress (trabajo en curso) como nombre provisional. Sólo se habían adelantado algunos fragmentos en la revista transition, si bien los autores de Our Exag, todos próximos a Joyce, estaban siguiendo el desarrollo del libro y seguramente habían sido introducidos por el autor en algunos de sus arcanos. Eran amigos dispuestos a ayudar: sus ensayos de son un gesto de apoyo a Joyce y de promoción de su obra, publicado en un momento en el que abundaban las críticas desfavorables, incluso de personas que hasta entonces habían apoyado a Joyce, como Ezra Pound o su mecenas Harriet Weaver.

En su enciclopédica biografía de Joyce, Richard Ellmann sostiene que el pretencioso título — clara parodia de la verborrea multilingüe de Finnegan's Wake — fue sugerido por el propio Joyce. La equivalencia en español propuesta por Enrique Castro y Beatríz Blanco, traductores de Ellman, es Nuestro examen en torno a su factificación para encaminar hacia la Work in Progress. La "g" espuria de la palabra "Exagmination" procede de una de las imaginativas etimologías de Joyce, ex agmine . [2]​

Doce son los autores de Our Exagmination, porque en la

En el momento en que se escribió Our Exagmination Joyce todavía no había revelado el nombre definitivo de la novela, y hace referencia a Work in Progress título preliminar bajo el que se publicaron algunos fragmentos en la revista transition. Es interesante constatar que los ensayos fueron redactador por escritores que conocieron personalmente a Joyce y siguieron el desarrollo del libro en diferentes etapas. Otros, como Beckett, pertenecían al círculo más cercano de discípulos joyceanos.

Our Exagmination fue publicado en 1929, diez años antes que el Wake apareciera en forma de libro. Colocaboraron con sus ensayos: el posterior Nobel de Literatura Samuel Beckett, los estudiosos de la obra de Joyce Frank Budgen y Stuart Gilbert, el editor de transition Eugene Jolas, el peruano Victor Llona, el poeta norteamericano William Carlos Williams, Robert McAlmon, Thomas McGreevy, Elliot Paul, John Rodker, Marcel Brion y Robert Sage.

Dos "cartas de protesta" (de G.V.L. Slingsby y Vladimir Dixon) fueron también incluidas en Our Exagmination. Por entonces, se reumoreaba que Joyce había escrito la segunda carta como una particular protesta en contra de sí mismo. Sylvia Beach y Richard Ellman sostenían esta sospecha basados en un juicio estilístico. Posteriormente, se confirmó que realmente existía un hombre llamado Vladimir Dixon, quien habría enviado esta carta a la librería Shakespeare and Company, y de esta manera, el texto habría terminado como parte de Our Exagmination. Sin embargo, llama la atención que dos conocedores de la obra de Joyce, como Beach y Ellman, se equivocaran respecto de la escritura de un completo desconocido que imitaba el estilo de prosa joyceano. 

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Nora Barnacle (March 1884 – April 10 1951) was the lover, companion, inspiration, and — eventually — wife of author James Joyce.

Nora Barnacle (Marzo 1884 &mdash 10 de abril de 1951) fue la amante, compañera, musa y, finalmente (en 1931), esposa del escritor James Joyce.

Barnacle was born in Connemara, Co. Galway, Ireland, but the day of her birth is uncertain. Depending on the source, it varies between the 21st and the 24th of March, 1884. Her father Thomas, a baker in Connemara, was an illiterate man who was 38 years old when Nora was born. Her mother, Annie Honoraria Healy, was 28 and worked as dressmaker.

Nació en Connemara, condado de Galway, Irlanda. Dependiendo de la fuente, el día de su nacimiento se estima entre el 21 y el 24 de marzo de 1884. Su padre, Thomas, panadero en Connemara, era hombre inculto, que tenía 38 años cuando Nora nació; su madre, Annie Honoraria Healy, tenía 28 y trabajaba como modista. [3]​

Between 1886 and 1889, Nora was sent to live with her maternal grandmother. During these years, she started her studies at a convent and, in 1891, graduated from a national school. In 1896, Nora completed her schooling and began to work as a porteress and laundress. In the same year, her mother threw her father out for drinking and the couple separated. Nora went to live with her mother and her uncle, Tom Healy, in Bowling Green Street, Galway City.

Cuando Nora tenía cinco años (por tanto, hacia 1889), su madre quedó encinta, tras haber tenido varios hijos. Ante la dificultad para mantenerlos a todos, Nora fue enviada a vivir con su abuela materna a Nun's Island (también en el condado de Galway) [4]​ Nora dejó la escuela con doce años, y empezó a trabajar como portera y lavandera. En ese mismo año de 1896 sus padres se separarondefinitivamente, debido al alcoholismo del padre. Nora empezó a vivir con su madre y su tío Tom Healy, en la ciudad de Galway; esta casa de la calle Bowling Street se rehabilitó en 1987 y se transformó en museo dedicado a Nora y Joyce [5]​

In 1896, Nora fell in love with a teenager named Michael Feeney, who died soon after of typhoid and pneumonia. In a dramatic but unrelated coincidence, another boy loved by Nora died in 1900, garnering her the name of "man-killer" from her friends. It was rumored that she sought solace from her friend, budding English theatre starlet, Laura London; who also introduced her to a Protestant named Willie Mulvagh. In 1903, she was sent away after her uncle learned of the affair and dubious friendship. She went to Dublin where she worked as chambermaid at Finn's Hotel.

En 1896, Nora se enamoró de un adolescente llamado Michael Feeney, que murió poco después de tifoidea y neumonía. Cuatro años después se enamoró de otro chico que también murió, y la dramática coincidencia hizo que sus amigas dieran en apodarla "matahombres". También sirvió de inspiración a Joyce: en The dead (Los muertos), el último cuento de Dublineses, la protagonista confiesa a su marido haber estado enamorada de un hombre que murió de tifoidea. Se rumoreó que Nora buscó consuelo en una amiga, la actriz teatral Laura London, que a su vez le presentó a un protestante llamado Willie Mulvagh. Cuando su tío tuvo noticia de tales famas y amistades, en 1903, Nora fue apartada de su casa. Tuvo que ir a Dublín, donde empezó a trabajar como camarera en el Finn's Hotel.

While in Dublin, she met Joyce on June 10 1904, but it was not until June 16 1904 that they had their first romantic liaison. This date would later be chosen as the setting for Joyce's novel Ulysses, and has come to be known and celebrated around the world as Bloomsday.

Joyce la conoció en Dublín el 10 de junio de 1904, y consiguió que ella aceptara una cita amorosa, acaso platónica, o quizás no tanto, es asunto discutido, el 16 de junio de 1904. Joyce, sumamente detallista y aún supersticioso con las fechas, habría de elegir ese día como marco temporal de Ulises. Años después, el reconocimiento de esa novela como obra de culto convertiría la fecha en día festivo de recuerdo y homenaje, el Bloomsday.

The nature of the initial meeting between Nora Barnacle and James Joyce remains controversial, as some claim that Nora instigated physical stimulation[6]​, whereas others maintain that this first meeting was chaste. It is unlikely that any one camp will ever have the final say in this debate, and Joyce's erotic correspondence to Nora has muddied the story somewhat.

In any event, the 1904 rendezvous began a long relationship that eventually led to marriage in 1931[7]​ (some say to appease Joyce's dying father) and continued until Joyce's death.

Con el encuentro del 16 de junio de 1904 se inició una larga relación de pareja. En 1931 la formalizaron contrayendo matrimonio (algunos dicen que para aplacar al moribundo padre de Joyce), y sólo terminó con la muerte del autor, diez años más tarde.

Nora and James' relationship was very complex. They had different personalities, tastes and cultural interests. At the beginning they loved each other passionately and deeply, as witnessed by the sensual epistolary correspondence between them. James seems to have admired and trusted her totally. Nora was well-disposed towards James, and seems to have tried to accommodate him. In anticipation of his move to Paris, Nora began studying French. Nora used to cook English puddings at Joyce's request and acquiesced in following him during his travels.

In 1904, Nora and James left Ireland for continental Europe, and in the following year they set up house in Trieste (at that time in Austria-Hungary). On June 27 1905, Nora Barnacle gave birth to a son, Giorgio, and later to a daughter, Lucia, in July 26 1907. A miscarriage in 1908 coincided with the beginning of a series of difficulties for Nora, which placed strain on her relationship with Joyce and made it increasingly conflictual. Although she remained by his side, she complained to her sister both about his personal qualities and his writings.

In these letters to her sister, she depicts her husband as a weak man and a neurotic artist. She accuses Joyce of ruining her life and that of their children. She says he drinks too much and wastes too much money. As for his literary activity, she laments the fact that his writings are obscure and lacking in sense. She hates attending his meetings with other artists and admits she would have preferred him had he been a musician rather than a writer.

Another challenge to the couple's relationship was posed by Lucia's mental disease. Nora believed hospitalization was required, but James was against it. Lucia's parents brought in many specialists and only in 1936 was she interned in a clinic. There, she was often visited by her father, but not her mother; Nora would refuse to see her daughter ever again.

Notwithstanding all the accusations and criticisms she levelled against Joyce, Nora married him in 1931. After living through Joyce's death in Zurich in 1941, Nora decided to remain there. She died in Zurich of uremic poisoning in 1951, aged 65.

In 1988, Nora Barnacle was the subject of a feminist biography by Brenda Maddox, Nora. This in turn was made into a film in 1999, directed by Pat Murphy and starring Susan Lynch and Ewan McGregor.

In 2004, an erotic letter from Joyce to Barnacle sold at Sotheby's for $445,000 USD (a record amount for a modern-day letter at auction).[8]​

Trivia[editar]

Joyce's father remarked, on learning Nora's surname, "She'll stick with him."

References[editar]

  1. ↑ Joyce cambia ligeramente el nombre de la pieza. Gogarty la creó como The Ballad of Japing Jesus y Joyce la cita como The Ballad of Joking Jesus. Salvo matices muy sutiles, "japing" y "joking" son prácticamente sinónimos
  2. ↑ Ellmann, p. 682
  3. ↑ Datos del artículo de Wikipedia en inglés. Ellmann, pag. 179, confirma la profesión del padre
  4. ↑ Ellmann, p. 179
  5. ↑ La página web del museo
  6. ↑ Davies, Stan Gébler (1975). James Joyce: a portrait of the artist. London: Davis-Poynter. ISBN 0-7067-0176-3. 
  7. ↑ «James (Augustine Aloysius) Joyce Biography (1882–1941)». Consultado el 17 de agosto de 2007. 
  8. ↑ «Joyce letter smashes sale record». BBC News. 8 de julio de 2004. Consultado el 17 de agosto de 2007. 


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