Diferencia entre revisiones de «Jarabe de maíz de alta fructosa»
Sin resumen de edición |
|||
| Línea 3: | Línea 3: | ||
El '''albíbar de maíz de alta frucosa''' o '''jarabe de maíz de alta frucosa''' también denominado '''sirape glucosa-fructosa'''<ref>Informed Choices Blog, see "Edit:" at bottom of article: [http://informedchoicesblog.wordpress.com/2008/09/02/hfcs-isoglucose/ The Sweet Life: High Fructose Corn Syrup/Isoglucose]</ref><ref>[http://www.netmums.com/food/Food_Nasties_Watch_Out_.321/ Glucose fructose syrup: the crack of sweeteners] Netmums</ref><ref>Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada: [http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?id=1172167862291&lang=eng The Canadian Soft Drink Industry] "Glucose/fructose is a generic term for high fructose corn syrup or HFCS". Retrieved November 5, 2009.</ref> constituye cualquier almíbar del grupo de [[Jarabe de maíz|almíbares de maíz]] cuales hayan pasado por el procesamiento enzimático para covertir parte de su [[glucosa]] a [[fructosa]] para producir una dulzura deseada. El los Estado Unidos, las comidas tipicamente utilizan el almíbar de maíz de alta frucosa como el endulzante prinical en lugar de azúcar. En los EE.UU. es muy común en alimentos y bebidas preparadas como el [[pan]], [[Cereal para desayuno|cereales]], [[Fiambre|fiambres]], [[Yogur|yogures]], [[sopas]], [[Condimento|aderizos]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.globe-expert.eu/quixplorer/filestorage/Interfocus/5-Climat_Environnement/58-Agriculture/58-SRCNL-IATP/200901/Jan._26_2009_Not_so_Sweet_Missing_Mercury_and_High_Fructose_Corn_Syrup_report_by_By_IATPDavid_Wallinga_M.D._Janelle_Sorensen_Pooja_Mottl_Brian_Yablon_M.D..pdf |date = January 2009|title=Not So Sweet: Missing Mercury and High Fructose Corn Syrup |accessdate=2010-09-01 |author=David Wallinga, M.D., Janelle Sorensen, Pooja Mottl, Brian Yablon, M.D. |publisher=[[Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy]] }}</ref> |
El '''albíbar de maíz de alta frucosa''' o '''jarabe de maíz de alta frucosa''' también denominado '''sirape glucosa-fructosa'''<ref>Informed Choices Blog, see "Edit:" at bottom of article: [http://informedchoicesblog.wordpress.com/2008/09/02/hfcs-isoglucose/ The Sweet Life: High Fructose Corn Syrup/Isoglucose]</ref><ref>[http://www.netmums.com/food/Food_Nasties_Watch_Out_.321/ Glucose fructose syrup: the crack of sweeteners] Netmums</ref><ref>Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada: [http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?id=1172167862291&lang=eng The Canadian Soft Drink Industry] "Glucose/fructose is a generic term for high fructose corn syrup or HFCS". Retrieved November 5, 2009.</ref> constituye cualquier almíbar del grupo de [[Jarabe de maíz|almíbares de maíz]] cuales hayan pasado por el procesamiento enzimático para covertir parte de su [[glucosa]] a [[fructosa]] para producir una dulzura deseada. El los Estado Unidos, las comidas tipicamente utilizan el almíbar de maíz de alta frucosa como el endulzante prinical en lugar de azúcar. En los EE.UU. es muy común en alimentos y bebidas preparadas como el [[pan]], [[Cereal para desayuno|cereales]], [[Fiambre|fiambres]], [[Yogur|yogures]], [[sopas]], [[Condimento|aderizos]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.globe-expert.eu/quixplorer/filestorage/Interfocus/5-Climat_Environnement/58-Agriculture/58-SRCNL-IATP/200901/Jan._26_2009_Not_so_Sweet_Missing_Mercury_and_High_Fructose_Corn_Syrup_report_by_By_IATPDavid_Wallinga_M.D._Janelle_Sorensen_Pooja_Mottl_Brian_Yablon_M.D..pdf |date = January 2009|title=Not So Sweet: Missing Mercury and High Fructose Corn Syrup |accessdate=2010-09-01 |author=David Wallinga, M.D., Janelle Sorensen, Pooja Mottl, Brian Yablon, M.D. |publisher=[[Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy]] }}</ref> |
||
<!-- |
|||
The most widely used varieties of high-fructose corn syrup are: HFCS 55 (mostly used in soft drinks), approximately 55% fructose and 42% glucose; and HFCS 42 (used in many foods and baked goods), approximately 42% fructose and 53% glucose.<ref>University of Maryland press release [http://www.newsdesk.umd.edu/sociss/release.cfm?ArticleID=1470 UM. Study - Not Enough Evidence to Indict High Fructose Corn Syrup in Obesity]. Retrieved 2007-11-15.</ref> HFCS-90, approximately 90% fructose and 10% glucose, is used in small quantities for specialty applications, but primarily is used to blend with HFCS 42 to make HFCS 55.<ref>Article in Food Product Design by John S. White, Ph.D.[http://www.foodproductdesign.com/articles/2008/12/hfcs-how-sweet-it-is.aspx John S. White, Ph.D., December 2, 2008, HFCS: How Sweet It Is, Food Product Design]. Retrieved 2009-09-06.</ref> |
|||
In the U.S., HFCS is among the sweeteners that have primarily replaced [[sucrose]] (table sugar). Factors for this include governmental production quotas of domestic sugar, subsidies of U.S. corn, and an import tariff on foreign sugar; all of which combine to raise the price of sucrose to levels above those of the rest of the world, making HFCS less costly for many sweetener applications. Critics of the extensive use of HFCS in food sweetening argue that the highly processed substance is more harmful to humans than regular sugar, contributing to weight gain by affecting normal appetite functions, and that in some foods HFCS may be a source of mercury, a known neurotoxin.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/26/AR2009012601831.html WashPost: Study Finds HFCS Contains Mercury] Jan. 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/10/01/cbsnews_investigates/main4491513.shtml CBS News Investigates HFCS] Oct. 2008</ref><ref>[http://stanford.wellsphere.com/parenting-article/high-fructose-corn-syrup-controversy/640342 Stanford Wellsphere HFCS Controversy] Apr. 2009</ref> The [[Corn Refiners Association]] disputes these claims and maintains that HFCS is comparable to table sugar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sweetsurprise.com/ |title=High Fructose Corn Syrup Health and Diet Facts |publisher=SweetSurprise.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> Studies by The [[American Medical Association]] suggest "it appears unlikely that HFCS contributes more to obesity or other conditions than sucrose" but call for further independent research on the subject.<ref>[http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/443/csaph3a08-summary.pdf The Health Effects of High Fructose Syrup, Report 3 of The Council on Science and Public Health (A-08)], The American Medical Association</ref> HFCS was classified as [[generally recognized as safe]] by the [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] in 1976.<ref name=FDAC>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/fcnDetailNavigation.cfm?rpt=scogsListing&id=95 |title=Database of Select Committee on GRAS Substances (SCOGS) Reviews |publisher=Accessdata.fda.gov |date=2006-10-31 |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> |
|||
==Use as a replacement for sugar== |
|||
HFCS has begun to replace sugar in various processed foods in the United States.<ref>(Bray, 2004 & U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Sugar and Sweetener Yearbook series, Tables 50–52)</ref><ref>[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/ads-annonces/23f0001x/hl-fs-eng.htm#a6 Statistics Canada, 2007]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> |
|||
The main reasons for this switch are: |
|||
* Per relative [[sweetness]], HFCS 55 is comparable to table sugar ([[sucrose]]), a [[disaccharide]] of fructose and glucose.<ref>[http://www.hfcsfacts.com/sweetAsSugar.html]</ref> |
|||
* High-fructose corn syrup HFCS 90 is sweeter than sucrose; HFCS 42 is less sweet than sucrose. |
|||
* HFCS is somewhat cheaper in the United States as a result of a combination of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs and quotas.<ref>Pollan, M, [http://michaelpollan.com/articles-archive/the-way-we-live-now-the-agricultural-contradictions-of-obesity/ The (Agri)Cultural Contradictions Of Obesity], ''[[The New York Times]]', 12 October 2003.</ref> Since the mid 1990s, the United States federal government has subsidized corn growers by $40 billion.<ref>Encyclopedia of Junk Food and Fast Food, |
|||
Andrew F. Smith, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006 (page 258)</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Engber |first=Daniel |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2216796 |title=The decline and fall of high-fructose corn syrup. - By Daniel Engber - Slate Magazine |publisher=Slate.com |date=2009-04-28 |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> |
|||
* HFCS is easier to blend and transport because it is a liquid.<ref>(Hanover LM, White JS. 1993. Manufacturing, composition, and applications of fructose. Am J Clin Nutr 58(suppl 5):724S-732S.)</ref> |
|||
==Comparison to other sweeteners== |
|||
{{nutritionalvalue| name = High-fructose corn syrup | kJ=1176 | protein=0 g | fat=0 g | carbs=76 g | sugar=76 g | fiber=0 g | sodium_mg=2 | potassium_mg = 0 | vitC_mg=0 | riboflavin_mg=0.019 | niacin_mg=0 | pantothenic_mg=0.011 | folate_ug=0 | iron_mg=0.42 | magnesium_mg=2 | phosphorus_mg=4 | zinc_mg=0.22 | calcium_mg=6 | vitB6_mg=0.024 | water=24 g | right=1 | source_usda=1 | note=Shown is for 100 g, roughly 5.25 tbsp.}} |
|||
===Cane and beet sugar=== |
|||
[[Sugarcane|Cane sugar]] and [[Sugar beet|beet sugar]] are both relatively pure [[sucrose]]. While glucose and fructose, which are the two components of HFCS, are [[monosaccharides]], sucrose is a [[disaccharide]] composed of glucose and fructose linked together with a relatively weak [[glycosidic bond]]. The fact that sucrose, glucose and fructose are unique, distinct molecules complicates the comparison between cane sugar, beet sugar and HFCS. A molecule of sucrose (with a chemical formula of C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>) can be broken down into a molecule of glucose (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) plus a molecule of fructose (also C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> — an [[isomer]] of glucose) in a weakly acidic environment by a process called [[Inverted sugar syrup|inversion]].<ref>Sugar Confectionery Manufacture, E. B. Jackson, Springer, 1995, ISBN 0-8342-1297-8 (page 109 and 115)</ref> Sucrose is [[Inverted sugar syrup|broken down]] during [[digestion]] into a mixture of 50% fructose and 50% glucose through [[hydrolysis]] by the enzyme [[sucrase]]. People with [[sucrase]] deficiency cannot digest (break down) sucrose and thus exhibit [[sucrose intolerance]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Neale G, Clark M, Levin B |title=Intestinal sucrase deficiency presenting as sucrose intolerance in adult life |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=2 |issue=5472 |pages=1223–5 |year=1965 |month=November |pmid=5850689 |pmc=1846606 |doi=10.1136/bmj.2.5472.1223}}</ref> |
|||
Sucrose has approximately four kilocalories (kcal)—or four calories of [[food energy]]—per gram, while HFCS has approximately three kcal per gram. This is because HFCS contains roughly 25% water. |
|||
===Honey=== |
|||
[[Honey]] is a mixture of different types of sugars, water, and small amounts of other compounds. Honey typically has a fructose/glucose ratio similar to HFCS 55, as well as containing some sucrose and other sugars. Like HFCS, honey contains water and has approximately 3 kcal per gram. Because of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to "stretch" honey. As a result, checks for adulteration of honey no longer test for higher-than-normal levels of sucrose, which HFCS does not contain, but instead test for minute quantities of proteins that can be used to differentiate between HFCS and honey.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Winston |first=Mark L. |title=From where I sit: essays on bees, beekeeping, and science |publisher=Comstock Pub. Associates |location=Ithaca |year=1998 |page=109 |isbn=0-8014-8478-2}}</ref> |
|||
==Production== |
|||
HFCS was first introduced by Richard O. Marshall and |
|||
Earl R. Kooi in 1957. They were, however, unsuccessful in making it viable for mass production.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=MARSHALL RO, KOOI ER |title=Enzymatic conversion of D-glucose to D-fructose |journal=Science |volume=125 |issue=3249 |pages=648–9 |year=1957 |month=April |pmid=13421660 |doi=10.1126/science.125.3249.648}}</ref> The industrial production process and creation was made by Dr. Y. Takasaki at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Ministry of International Trade and Industry of Japan in 1965–1970. Dr. Y. Takasaki is known to many as the creator of HFCS. HFCS was rapidly introduced to many processed foods and [[soft drink]]s in the U.S. from about 1975 to 1985. |
|||
High-fructose corn syrup is produced by milling corn to produce [[corn starch]], then processing that starch to yield [[corn syrup]], which is almost entirely glucose, and then adding [[enzyme]]s that change some of the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup (after enzyme conversion) contains approximately 42% fructose and is HFCS 42. The 42% fructose is then purified to 90% fructose, HFCS90. To make HFCS 55, the HFCS 90 is mixed with HFCS 42 in the appropriate ratios to form the desired HFCS 55. The enzyme process that changes the 100% glucose corn syrup into HFCS 42 is as follows: |
|||
# [[Cornstarch]] is treated with [[alpha-amylase]] to produce shorter chains of sugars called [[oligosaccharide]]s. |
|||
# [[Glucoamylase]] - which is produced by [[Aspergillus]], a fungus, in a fermentation vat — breaks the sugar chains down even further to yield the simple sugar glucose. |
|||
# [[Xylose isomerase]] (aka glucose isomerase) converts glucose to a mixture of about 42% fructose and 50–52% glucose with some other sugars mixed in. |
|||
While inexpensive alpha-amylase and glucoamylase are added directly to the slurry and used only once, the more costly xylose-isomerase is packed into columns and the sugar mixture is then passed over it, allowing it to be used repeatedly until it loses its activity. This 42–43% fructose glucose mixture is then subjected to a liquid [[chromatography]] step, where the fructose is enriched to about 90%. The 90% fructose is then back-blended with 42% fructose to achieve a 55% fructose final product. Most manufacturers use carbon [[adsorption]] for impurity removal. Numerous filtration, ion-exchange and evaporation steps are also part of the overall process. |
|||
The units of measurement for sucrose is degrees [[Brix]] (symbol °Bx). [[Brix]] is a measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved sucrose to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx solution has 25 grams of sucrose per 100 grams of solution (25% w/w). Or, to put it another way, there are 25 grams of sucrose and 75 grams of water in the 100 grams of solution. The Brix measurement was introduced by Antoine Brix. |
|||
A more universal measurement of sugars, including HFCS, is called dry solids. Dry solids is defined as the mass ratio of dry sugars to the total weight of the sugar solution. Since Brix is based on the refractive index of light against a sucrose molecule it is not accurate when measuring other sugars such as glucose, maltose, and fructose. |
|||
When an infrared Brix sensor is used, it measures the vibrational frequency of the sucrose molecules, giving a Brix degrees measurement. This will not be the same measurement as Brix degrees using a density or refractive index measurement, because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When a refractometer is used, it is correct to report the result as "refractometric dried substance" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as being 20 °Bx RDS. This is a measure of percent by weight of ''total'' dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since the majority of dried solids are in fact sucrose. |
|||
Recently, an isotopic method for quantifying sweeteners derived from corn and sugar cane was developed which permits measurement of corn syrup- and cane sugar-derived sweeteners in humans, thus allowing dietary assessment of the intake of these substances relative to total intake.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jahren AH, Saudek C, Yeung EH, Kao WH, Kraft RA, Caballero B |title=An isotopic method for quantifying sweeteners derived from corn and sugar cane |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=1380–4 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17158420 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17158420}}</ref> |
|||
==Sweetener consumption patterns== |
|||
===United States=== |
|||
[[Image:Usda sweeteners.svg|thumb|300px|right|US sweetener consumption, 1966-2009, in dry pounds. It is apparent from this graph that overall sweetener consumption, and in particular glucose-fructose mixtures, has increased since the introduction of HFCS. Thus, the amount of fructose consumed in the United States has increased since the early 1980s. This would be true whether the added sweetener was HFCS, table sugar, or any other glucose-fructose mixture.<ref name="Forshee" />]] |
|||
A system of sugar tariffs and sugar quotas imposed in 1977 in the United States significantly increased the cost of imported sugar and U.S. producers sought cheaper sources. High-fructose corn syrup, derived from corn, is more economical because the domestic U.S. and Canadian prices of sugar are twice the global price<ref>[[Grist]] [http://gristmill.grist.org/story/2006/5/10/135951/485 ADM, high-fructose corn syrup, and ethanol] |
|||
</ref> and the price of [[maize|corn]] is kept low through government subsidies paid to growers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iatp.org/iatp/factsheets.cfm?accountID=258&refID=89968 |title=Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allcountries.org/uscensus/1127_corn_acreage_production_and_value_by.html |title=Corn Production/Value |publisher=Allcountries.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> |
|||
HFCS became an attractive substitute, and is preferred over cane sugar among the vast majority of American food and beverage manufacturers. Soft drink makers such as [[Coca-Cola]] and [[Pepsi]] use sugar in other nations, but switched to HFCS in the U.S. in 1984.<ref>[http://www.fff.org/freedom/0498d.asp The Great Sugar Shaft] by James Bovard, April 1998 The Future of Freedom Foundation</ref> Large corporations, such as [[Archer Daniels Midland]], [[Lobbying|lobby]] for the continuation of government corn subsidies.<ref name="cato.org-corporate_welfare"> |
|||
{{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-241.html |title=Archer Daniels Midland: A Case Study in Corporate Welfare |author=James Bovard |publisher=[[The Cato Institute|cato.org]]|accessdate=2007-07-12}} |
|||
</ref> |
|||
Other countries, including Mexico, typically use sugar in soft drinks. Some Americans seek out Mexican Coca-Cola in ethnic groceries, because they prefer the taste compared to Coke made with HFCS.<ref> |
|||
[http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041109/news_1b9mexcoke.html Is Mexican Coke the real thing?] By Louise Chu ASSOCIATED PRESS November 9, 2004 The San Diego Union-Tribune</ref><ref> |
|||
{{Cite news| url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002076071_coke29.html | title = Mexican Coke a hit in U.S.| work=The Seattle Times}}</ref> [[Kosher]] for [[Passover]] Coca-Cola sold in the U.S. around the [[Jewish]] holiday also uses sucrose rather than HFCS and is also highly sought after by people who prefer the original taste.<ref> |
|||
{{Cite news| url=http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2009-04-08-kosher-coke_N.htm | work=USA Today | title=Kosher Coke 'flying out of the store' | date=April 9, 2009 | accessdate=May 4, 2010 | first1=Duffie | last1=Dixon}}</ref> |
|||
The average American consumed approximately {{convert|37.8|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of HFCS in 2008, versus {{convert|46.7|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of sucrose.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FoodConsumption/FoodAvailQueriable.aspx | title=U.S. per capita food availability – Sugar and sweeteners (individual) | publisher=[[Economic Research Service]] | date=2010-02-16| accessdate=2010-03-12}}</ref> In countries where HFCS is not used or rarely used, sucrose consumption per person may be higher than in the USA; sucrose consumption per person from various locations is shown below (2002):<ref>WHO Oral Health Country/Area Profile Programme</ref> |
|||
* USA: {{convert|32.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |
|||
* EU: {{convert|40.1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |
|||
* Brazil: {{convert|59.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |
|||
* Australia: {{convert|56.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |
|||
Of course, in terms of total sugars consumed, the figures from countries where HFCS is not used should be compared to the sum of the sucrose and HFCS figures from countries where HFCS consumption is significant. |
|||
===European Union=== |
|||
In the [[European Union]] (EU), HFCS, known as isoglucose or glucose-fructose syrup, is subject to a [[production quota]]. In 2005, this quota was set at 303,000 tons; in comparison, the EU produced an average of 18.6 million tons of sugar annually between 1999 and 2001.<ref>{{Cite book|editor=M. Ataman Aksoy, John C. Beghin |title=Global Agricultural Trade and Developing Countries |year=2005 |publisher=World Bank Publications |isbn=0821358634 |page=329 |chapter=Sugar Policies: An Opportunity for Change}}</ref> Therefore, wide scale replacement of sugar has not occurred in the EU. |
|||
===Japan=== |
|||
In [[Japan]], HFCS consumption accounts for one quarter of total sweetener consumption.<ref>{{ja icon}}[http://sugar.alic.go.jp/japan/data/j_html/j_1_01.htm １．需給関係資料](1) 砂糖及び異性化糖の需給総括表</ref><!--Total sugar 2100 kilo ton : HFCS 700 kilo ton--> |
|||
==Health effects== |
|||
{{pov-section|date=December 2010}} |
|||
===Obesity=== |
|||
According to Anderson, the past 35 years have seen a rise in obesity |
|||
as well as an increase in added sugars in commonly consumed foods. |
|||
This increase in obesity is believed to be linked to the increased consumption of added sugars in food, |
|||
specifically high-fructose corn syrup. Extensive research has been conducted to study |
|||
high-fructose corn syrup and its effect on body weight. |
|||
<ref> |
|||
{{cite journal |
|||
|author=G.H. Anderson |
|||
|title=Much ado about high-fructose corn syrup in beverages: The meat |
|||
of the matter |
|||
|journal=American Journal of clinical Nutrition |
|||
|volume=86 |
|||
|pages=1577–1578 |
|||
|year=2007 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
According to Ferder, Ferder & Inserra, fructose consumption and |
|||
obesity are linked because fructose consumption does not cause an |
|||
insulin response. This is important because, without an insulin |
|||
response after consumption of a high-fructose food, there is no |
|||
suppression of appetite which is normally induced by hyperinsulinemia |
|||
after a meal. If there is no satiety or suppression of appetite |
|||
occurring, then the person will continue eating or overeating as the |
|||
case may be. This is linked with obesity because excess calories are |
|||
converted and stored as fat, and when this process continues over a |
|||
long period of time it results in obesity. |
|||
<ref name="L. Ferder, M.D. Ferder, & F. Inserra 2010 105–112">{{cite journal |
|||
|author=L. Ferder, M.D. Ferder, & F. Inserra |
|||
|title=The role of high-fructose corn syrup in metabolic syndrome and |
|||
hypertension |
|||
|journal=Current Hypertension Report |
|||
|volume=12 |
|||
|pages=105–112 |
|||
|year=2010 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
Forshee et al. (2007), argues that although there is valid information regarding fructose and its role in promoting obesity, there is no concrete and conclusive research to support the hypothesis that high-fructose corn syrup has the same obesity promoting properties as fructose. Although there are many studies that link fructose and obesity, there are very few studies that evaluate the relationship between HFCS and body weight increase or increased BMI. The only data that does link HFCS with obesity or weight gain comes from ecological data which is recognized as an insufficient source for the development of a true [[cause and effect]] relationship between HFCS and obesity. Though there is no current research that links HFCS consumption to obesity, the hypothesis that such a relationship exists should not be dismissed. Further research is needed on the subject in order to form an experimentally supported theory either supporting or refuting this hypothesis |
|||
<ref name="R. Forshee, M.L. Storey, D.B. Allison, W.M. Glinsmann, G.L. Hein, D.R. Lineback, S.A. Miller, et al., J.S. White. 2007 561–582">{{cite journal |
|||
| author=R. Forshee, M.L. Storey, D.B. Allison, W.M. Glinsmann, G.L. Hein, D.R. Lineback, S.A. Miller, et al., J.S. White. |
|||
| title= A critical examination of the evidence relating high-fructose corn syrup and weight gain |
|||
| journal= Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |
|||
| volume= 47 |
|||
| pages= 561–582 |
|||
| year= 2007 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
The [[Corn Refiners Association]] launched an aggressive advertising campaign to counter these criticisms, claiming that high-fructose corn syrup is natural since it's "made from grain corn" and "is nutritionally the same as honey and table sugar".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sweetsurprise.com/hfcs-and-your-family/your-childs-diet/a-balanced-diet |title=A Balanced Diet: Teach Your Children the ABC's of Healthy Eating |publisher=sweetsurprise.com |accessdate=2011-01-17 }}</ref> |
|||
====Bocarsly et al.==== |
|||
Bocarsly ''et al.''<ref name="Bocarsly">{{Cite journal|author=Bocarsly ME, Powell ES, Avena NM, Hoebel BG |title=High-fructose corn syrup causes characteristics of obesity in rats: Increased body weight, body fat and triglyceride levels |journal=Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior |volume= 97|issue= 1|pages= 101–6|year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20219526 |doi=10.1016/j.pbb.2010.02.012}}</ref> completed a 2010 study where groups of 10 rats were given water sweetened with either 8% HFCS 12 hrs/day, 8% HFCS 24 hrs/day, or 10% sucrose 12 hrs/day (table sugar), all with ''[[ad libitum]]'' rodent chow, or only ad libitum rodent chow for a duration of 8 weeks. Then groups of 8 male rats were fed to compare diets with added sweetener in the form of HFCS to ones without added sweetener for 6 months. Then groups of 8 female rats were fed to compare diets with no or different kinds of added sweeteners to ones without for 7 months. |
|||
The set of rats on HFCS 12 hrs/day gained 48 percent more weight than a set of rats on sucrose 12 hrs/day in young males over the short term, but less in adult females over the long term. They also reported that the rats on HFCS 24 hrs/day did not gain a statistically significant amount of weight when compared to the rats on sucrose or chow only. Additionally, no differences in blood-glucose levels were observed. |
|||
Another study was conducted for 6–7 months, and fat pads were removed from the rats and weighed. Fat pads for rats on HFCS 12 hrs/day weighed significantly more than rats on chow only, but weighed less, but not significantly so, than rats on sucrose. Fat pads for rats on HFCS 24 hrs/day did not have a statistically different weight than rats on chow only. The rats fed with 24h HFCS also had higher [[triglyceride]] (TG) levels than rats fed 12h sucrose or chow only, indicating signs of [[metabolic syndrome]]. TG levels were not tested for rats fed 24h sucrose, and other studies indicate that sucrose and HFCS have similar post-metabolic profiles.<ref name="Bocarsly"/> The study methodology has been criticized.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodpolitics.com/2010/03/hfcs-makes-rats-fat/ |title=HFCS makes rats fat? ''Marion Nestle'' |publisher=Foodpolitics.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> |
|||
====Elliot et al.==== |
|||
Elliot ''et al.''<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Fructose, weight gain, and the insulin resistance syndrome1|first=Sharon S|last=Elliott|coauthors=Nancy L Keim, Judith S Stern, Karen Teff and Peter J Havel|journal=Am J Clin Nutr |year=2004|month=April|volume=79|number=4|pages=537–43|pmid=15051594|issue=4}}</ref> implicate increased consumption of fructose (due primarily to the increased consumption of sugars but also partly due to the slightly higher fructose content of HFCS as compared to sucrose) in obesity and insulin resistance. |
|||
====Ho et al.==== |
|||
[[Chi-Tang Ho]] ''et al.'' found that soft drinks sweetened with HFCS are "astonishingly high" in harmful [[carbonyl]] compounds, such as [[methylglyoxal]], when compared to a diet soft drink control, and concluded that sucrose does not have the same tendency to produce these compounds.<ref>[http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/532433/ Soda Warning? New Study Supports Link Between Diabetes, High-fructose Corn Syrup] Released: Mon 13-Aug-2007, 16:30 ET Source: American Chemical Society (ACS) - Newswise</ref> |
|||
====Stanhope et al.==== |
|||
A 2008 study in humans (supported in part with funding from Pepsico, Inc., the USDA, and the American Diabetes Association) analyzed the circulating levels of glucose, insulin, [[leptin]], [[ghrelin]], and [[triacylglycerol]] during a 24 hour period after consuming drinks containing HFCS or sucrose. The researchers concluded that the consumption of HFCS or sucrose did not yield differing metabolic effects.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Stanhope KL, Griffen SC, Bair BR, Swarbrick MM, Keim NL, Havel PJ |title=Twenty-four-hour endocrine and metabolic profiles following consumption of high-fructose corn syrup-, sucrose-, fructose-, and glucose-sweetened beverages with meals |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=1194–203 |year=2008 |month=May |pmid=18469239 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18469239}}</ref> |
|||
====Tate & Lyle==== |
|||
Several studies funded by [[Tate & Lyle]], a large corn refiner, the [[American Beverage Institute]] and the [[Corn Refiners Association]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eb2006-online.com/LBApdfs/600540.PDF |title=online abstracts2006 internet forfait haut at eb2006-online.com |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060902191906/http://www.eb2006-online.com/LBApdfs/600540.PDF |archivedate = 2006-09-02}}</ref><ref>[http://www.foodproductdesign.com/hotnews/64h1411309.html Similarities Between HFCS and Sucrose Revealed<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> have defended HFCS. Forshee ''et al.'' concluded "that HFCS does not appear to contribute to overweight and obesity any differently than do other energy sources."<ref name="Forshee">{{Cite journal|title=A critical examination of the evidence relating high-fructose corn syrup and weight gain |author=Forshee RA |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|year=2007|volume=47|number=6|pages=561–82 |doi=10.1080/10408390600846457 |pmid=17653981 |url=http://www.sweetsurprise.com/sites/default/files/CriticalReviewsinFSandN47-6-561-582.pdf|format=PDF |last2=Storey|first2=ML|last3=Allison|first3=DB|last4=Glinsmann|first4=WH|last5=Hein|first5=GL|last6=Lineback|first6=DR|last7=Miller|first7=SA|last8=Nicklas|first8=TA|last9=Weaver|first9=GA|issue=6}}</ref> Melanson ''et al.'' (2006), studied the effects of HFCS and sucrose sweetened drinks on blood glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin levels. They found no significant differences in any of these parameters.<ref name="melanson">Melanson K et al. Eating Rate and Satiation. Obesity Society (NAASO) 2006 Annual Meeting. October 20–24, 2006, Hynes Convention Center, Boston, Massachusetts</ref> Monsivais ''et al.'' (2007) compared the effects of isocaloric servings of colas sweetened with HFCS 42, HFCS 55, sucrose, and aspartame on satiety and subsequent energy intake.<ref name="monsivais">{{Cite journal|title=Sugars and satiety: does the type of sweetener make a difference?|author=Monsivais P et al.|journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|year=2007|volume=86|number=1|pages=116–123|pmid=17616770|issue=1}}</ref> They found that all of the drinks with caloric sweeteners produced similar satiety responses, and had the same effects on subsequent energy intake. |
|||
====Bray et al.==== |
|||
One much-publicized 2004 study found an association between [[obesity]] and high HFCS consumption, especially from soft drinks.<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Bray | first = George A.| coauthors = Samara Joy Nielsen and Barry M. Popkin | title = Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity | journal = American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 79 | issue = 4 | pages = 537–543 | url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/4/537 | pmid = 15051594 | date = April 1, 2004 }}</ref> However, this study provided only correlative data. One of the study coauthors, Dr. Barry M. Popkin, is quoted in ''The New York Times'' as saying, "I don't think there should be a perception that high-fructose corn syrup has caused obesity until we know more."<ref name="Warner NYTimes">{{Cite news |
|||
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/02/business/yourmoney/02syrup.html?pagewanted=all |
|||
| work = [[The New York Times]] |
|||
| title = A Sweetener With a Bad Rap |
|||
| first = Melanie |
|||
| last = Warner |
|||
| date = July 2, 2006 |
|||
| accessdate = 2007-11-17 |
|||
}}</ref> In the same article, Walter Willett, chair of the nutrition department of the Harvard School of Public Health, is quoted as saying, "There's no substantial evidence to support the idea that high-fructose corn syrup is somehow responsible for obesity .... If there was no high-fructose corn syrup, I don't think we would see a change in anything important." Willett also recommends drinking water over soft drinks containing sugars or high-fructose corn syrup.<ref>[http://juliahavey.typepad.com/my_weblog/2006/08/cocacola_to_sel.html Coca-Cola & The American Beverage Ass. to sell the Brooklyn Bridge]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> |
|||
===Mercury=== |
|||
A [[pilot study]] reported that some high-fructose corn syrup manufactured in the U.S. in 2005 contained trace amounts of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]]. The mercury appeared to come from preparations of [[sodium hydroxide]] and [[hydrochloric acid]], two chemicals used to produce high-fructose corn syrup. These chemicals may have come from plants also specializing in industrial chlorine [[Chloralkali process|chlor-alkali]] using the mercury cell [[Castner-Kellner process]], and may contain traces of mercury if this specific process is utilized. Mercury concentrations in the samples testing positive ranged from 0.012 μg/g to 0.570 μg/g ([[micrograms]] per [[gram]]). Nine of the twenty samples tested did contain measurable amounts of mercury.<ref> |
|||
{{Cite journal|author= Dufault, Renee; LeBlanc, Blaise; Schnoll, Roseanne; ''et al.'' | title= Mercury from chlor-alkali plants: measured concentrations in food product sugar |journal= Environmental Health |volume=8 |page=2 |year=2009 |pmid=19171026 |pmc=2637263 |doi=10.1186/1476-069X-8-2 |url=http://ehjournal.net/content/8/1/2 | laysummary=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/587466 |laydate=2009-01-27 |laysource= Medscape Today | accessdate = August 9, 2009 | quote = Mercury in any form – either as water-soluble inorganic salt, a lipid-soluble organic mercury compound, or as metallic mercury- is an extremely potent neurological toxin."<br/>"...it is currently impossible to establish a no adverse-effect-level for mercury in humans.}}</ref> |
|||
===Metabolic Syndrome=== |
|||
According to the American Heart Association, metabolic syndrome is defined as the manifestation of numerous metabolic risk factors in one individual. These risk factors include high blood pressure, abdominal fat, high blood triglyceride levels, high uric acid levels, insulin resistance and a state of chronic inflammation. Individuals with metabolic syndrome are at a high risk for developing other related health issues such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. |
|||
<ref> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| publisher= American Heart Association |
|||
| title= Metabolic Syndrome |
|||
| url=http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4756 |
|||
| year=2010 |
|||
| accessdate= 2010-11-01 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
Metabolic syndrome is becoming increasingly prevalent in the United States, it is estimated that over 50 million Americans have this condition. Due to the increased prevalence of this condition in recent years it is hypothesized that metabolic syndrome is linked to over consumption of high-fructose corn syrup. |
|||
<ref name="W. Nseir, F. Nassar and N. Assy 2010 2579–2588">{{cite journal |
|||
|author=W. Nseir, F. Nassar and N. Assy |
|||
|title=Soft drink consumption and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease |
|||
|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology |
|||
|volume=16 |
|||
|issue=21 |
|||
|pages=2579–2588 |
|||
|year=2010 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
Similar to the research cited for obesity, the research that speaks to metabolic syndrome focuses mostly on the fructose aspect of high-fructose corn syrup. According to Nseir, Nassar and Assy (2010), the onset of metabolic syndrome is triggered by visceral adipose tissue which is linked to the consumption of fructose. Fructose is related to adiposity through the increase in blood triglyceride levels caused by the consumption of this monosaccharide. This increased adiposity leads to both obesity and metabolic syndrome. |
|||
<ref name="W. Nseir, F. Nassar and N. Assy 2010 2579–2588"/> |
|||
According to Ferder, Ferder and Inserra (2010), a high-fructose diet induces inflammation and metabolic syndrome. In a study they performed on rats, the addition of 10% wt/volume fructose solution to the rat’s diet increased the inflammatory response in rats as well as the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the experimental groups. Although this research has not been performed on human subjects, the researchers believe that this study is a good indicator of relevance of the hypothesis that increased fructose intake leads to metabolic syndrome. |
|||
<ref name="L. Ferder, M.D. Ferder, & F. Inserra 2010 105–112"/> |
|||
Forshee et al. (2007), states that although this research is valid for fructose consumption, it is not a good representation of the effects of HFCS as related to metabolic syndrome. This condition is closely linked with obesity, and both conditions cannot be correlated with the intake of high-fructose corn syrup without further research.<ref name="R. Forshee, M.L. Storey, D.B. Allison, W.M. Glinsmann, G.L. Hein, D.R. Lineback, S.A. Miller, et al., J.S. White. 2007 561–582"/> |
|||
===Cardiovascular Disease=== |
|||
The Mayo Clinic defines cardiovascular disease as an umbrella term used to describe a wide variety of conditions affecting the heart. Currently, cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death in the world as well as in the United States. The overwhelming prevalence of cardiovascular disease makes it imperative that we fully understand its causes and work to prevent them. |
|||
<ref> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| publisher=The Mayo Clinic |
|||
| title= Heart Disease |
|||
| url= http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/heart-disease/DS01120 |
|||
| date= January 28, 2009 |
|||
| accessdate= 2010-11-01 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
One of the causes of cardiovascular disease is believed to be the consumption of high-fructose corn syrup. According to Parrish (2010), the metabolic processes involved in the breakdown of fructose can lead to a build up of uric acid. A build up of uric acid is one of the symptoms of metabolic syndrome which is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Parrish also references the link between fructose and blood triglyceride levels as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, specifically atherosclerosis. |
|||
<ref> |
|||
{{cite journal |
|||
| author= L.A.W. Parrish |
|||
| title= How does the consumption of fructose and high-fructose corn syrup impact the health of children and adolescents |
|||
| journal= Pediatric Endocrinology Nursing Society |
|||
| volume= 6 |
|||
| issue= 6 |
|||
| pages=459–460 |
|||
| year= 2010 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
According to Brown, Dulloo and Montani (2008), studies performed on animals have shown a link between sugar intake and cardiovascular disease, specifically hypertension, tachycardia and ventricular hypertrophy. In these studies, glucose was shown to be unrelated to hypertension, whereas fructose was shown to be the more damaging sugar component. An 8% solution of fructose was shown to induce left ventricle hypertrophy, hypertension and tachycardia, within a week of its substitution for drinking water, in populations of rats. Although these studies proved that overall sugar consumption due to the fructose component of sugar is linked with cardiovascular disease, they do not produce evidence that HFCS is more responsible for these relationships than sucrose or other sugars. |
|||
<ref name="C.M. Brown, A.G. Dulloo, & J.P. Montani 2008 S28-34">{{cite journal |
|||
| author=C.M. Brown, A.G. Dulloo, & J.P. Montani |
|||
| title= Sugary drinks in the pathogenesis of obesity and cardiovascular disease |
|||
| journal= International Journal of Obesity |
|||
| volume= 32 |
|||
| pages= S28-34 |
|||
| year=2008 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
===Diabetes=== |
|||
According to Brown, Dulloo and Montani, fructose consumption is linked to the onset of insulin resistance and type 2 [[diabetes]] (2008). In healthy individuals after two weeks on a high-fructose diet a 25% reduction in insulin sensitivity was seen. Researchers believe that the relationship between HFCS and insulin resistance is dose dependent based on the fructose content, because in individuals who were given 3g of fructose per kg of body weight per day insulin resistance was observed, however a lower dose of fructose (1.5g per kg of body weight per day) did not produce the same insulin resistance. This research shows that limited sugar consumption (specifically the fructose component) does not lead to the onset of insulin resistance or diabetes, however higher amounts of sugar consumption is believed to lead to both insulin resistance as well as type 2 diabetes. |
|||
<ref name="C.M. Brown, A.G. Dulloo, & J.P. Montani 2008 S28-34"/> |
|||
===Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease=== |
|||
According to Allocca and Selmi (2010), Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is defined as “the hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome and is currently among the most prominent causes of chronic liver disease in the United States, being found in up to 30% of the general population.” One of the main contributing factors to NAFLD is insulin resistance or an excessive intake of carbohydrates or fats leading to an elevation in blood glucose, insulin and triglycerides. |
|||
<ref name="M. Allocca & C. Selmi 2010 131–146">{{cite journal |
|||
| author= M. Allocca & C. Selmi |
|||
| title= Emerging nutritional treatments for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease |
|||
| journal= Nutrition, diet therapy, and the liver |
|||
| pages= 131–146 |
|||
| year= 2010 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
Mariangela Allocca and Carlo Selmi (2010), state that unlike the previously discussed conditions where research is primarily focused on the fructose component of HFCS or sucrose, NAFLD is related to both the fructose and the glucose components of both sugars. First, fructose is linked with NAFLD through an elevation in fructose consumption producing elevated blood triglyceride levels. As chronically elevated blood triglyceride levels are one of the main factors contributing to risk for NAFLD, so high-fructose consumption, which produces these elevated levels, is also a risk factor for NAFLD. Animal studies, specifically those performed on fructose-fed mice, have shown that chronic fructose consumption leads to lipid accumulation in the liver. “The available experimental and human data strongly support the notion that fructose avoidance should be encouraged in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.” |
|||
<ref name="M. Allocca & C. Selmi 2010 131–146"/> |
|||
According to Allocca and Selmi (2010), glucose consumption is a key factor in the development in NAFLD as well as fructose. Glucose plays a role in the development of this condition because blood glucose concentrations that travel to the liver can either be converted to glycogen or free fatty acids. Glucose is converted to free fatty acids in the liver in the process of insulin-stimulated de novo lipogenesis, which results in the accumulation of these lipids in the liver. This build up of lipids in the liver leads to increased production and secretion of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) which eventually results in an inability to prevent NAFLD through problems maintaining fat balance. Although, NAFLD involves both the glucose and the fructose components of HFCS, there has been no conclusive research linking HFCS consumption to the onset of NAFLD more so than sucrose or other sugar consumption. |
|||
<ref name="M. Allocca & C. Selmi 2010 131–146"/> |
|||
==Apiculture== |
|||
In the United States, high-fructose corn syrup has become a sucrose replacement for [[honey bees]]. In 2009, a study by Leblanc ''et al.'' found that at temperatures above {{convert|45|C|F}} HFCS rapidly begins to form [[hydroxymethylfurfural]], which is toxic to the honey bees being fed HFCS.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1021/jf9014526}}</ref> |
|||
==Public relations== |
|||
===Labeling as "natural"=== |
|||
In May 2006, the [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] (CSPI) threatened to file a lawsuit against [[Cadbury Schweppes]] for labeling [[7 Up]] as "All Natural" or "100% Natural",<ref>{{cite web| title = CSPI to Sue Cadbury Schweppes over "All Natural" 7UP | publisher = [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] | url= http://www.cspinet.org/new/200605111.html | accessdate = 2007-11-17}}</ref> despite the presence of high-fructose corn syrup. The [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) has no general definition of "natural"; however, FDA regulations define "natural flavoring" to include products of vegetables.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&rgn=div8&view=text&node=21:2.0.1.1.2.2.1.1&idno=21 |title=21 Code of Federal Regulations § 101.22 |publisher=Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> Current FDA policy is that it does not object to labeling HFCS as "natural."<ref>[http://www.corn.org/FDAdecision7-7-08.pdf Letter to Corn Refiners Association, July 3, 2008]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> The CSPI also claim that HFCS is not a "natural" ingredient due to the high level of processing and the use of at least one [[genetically modified organism|genetically modified]] (GMO) enzyme required to produce it. On January 12, 2007, [[Cadbury Schweppes]] agreed to stop calling [[7 Up]] "All Natural".<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.beveragedaily.com/Products/Cadbury-scraps-natural-label-on-7UP | title=Cadbury scraps 'natural' label on 7UP | author=Lorraine Heller | date=2007-01-15 | accessdate=2008-12-15}}</ref> They now label it "100% Natural Flavors".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.7up.com/7uptext/7up.asp | title=7UP, Now 100% Natural Flavors | publisher=Dr Pepper/Seven Up | year=2007 | accessdate=2007-09-24}}</ref> |
|||
===HFCS advertisements=== |
|||
In September 2008, the Corn Refiners Association<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corn.org |title=Corn Refiners Association homepage |publisher=Corn.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> launched a series of United States [[television advertisement]]s that stated that HFCS "is made from corn", "is [[natural foods|natural]]" (changed from previously-stated "doesn't have artificial [[ingredient]]s"), "has the same [[calorie]]s as [[sucrose|sugar]] or [[honey]]", "is [[nutrition]]ally the same as sugar", and "is fine in [[moderation]]", in the hopes of keeping consumers from avoiding HFCS products. The ads feature actors portraying roles in upbeat domestic situations with sugary foods, with one actor disparaging a food's HFCS content but being unable to explain why, and another actor questioning the comments with these claims. Finally, the ads each make reference to the Corn Refiners Association website.<ref>[http://www.sweetsurprise.com/ http://www.sweetsurprise.com/], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EEbRxTOyGf0 YouTube], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KVsgXPt564Q YouTube]</ref> |
|||
[[Michael F. Jacobson|Michael Jacobson]], executive director of the [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]], called the advertisements "deceptive",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cspinet.org/new/200806231.html |title=Corn Refiners’ Ad Campaign Called Deceptive* |author=Jacobson, Michael F |date=June 23, 2008 |work= [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] |accessdate=June 29, 2010}}</ref> stating: "High-fructose corn syrup starts out as cornstarch, which is chemically or enzymatically degraded to glucose and some short polymers of glucose. Another enzyme is then used to convert varying fractions of glucose into fructose...High-fructose corn syrup just doesn't exist in nature."<ref name="lisa">{{Cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1841910,00.html |title=Is High-Fructose Corn Syrup Really Good for You? |author=McLaughlin, Lisa |date=September 17, 2008 |work=[[Time Magazine]] |accessdate=June 19, 2010}}</ref> |
|||
Since HFCS is present in a staggering amount of food in the US, and in most foods marketed to children, there are doubts as to whether it can be consumed in moderation. {{quote|...unless you're making a concerted effort to avoid it, it's pretty difficult to consume high-fructose corn syrup in moderation<ref name=lisa/>|[[Time Magazine]]}} |
|||
===Moves back to sugar=== |
|||
A March 21, 2009 ''[[The New York Times]]'' article said that some food companies and restaurants were using sugar in their product as a selling point, in order to attract customers who prefer not to consume high-fructose corn syrup. As one example, the article cited [[Jason's Deli]], a chain of delis with 200 restaurants in 27 states. The chain had replaced high-fructose corn syrup with sugar in everything except a few soft drinks. Daniel Helfman, a spokesman for the deli chain, was quoted as saying, "Part of this is a huge rebellion against HFCS... but part of it is taste."<ref> |
|||
{{Cite news |
|||
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/21/dining/21sugar.html |
|||
| title = Sugar Is Back on Food Labels, This Time as a Selling Point |
|||
| author = Kim severson |
|||
| work = [[The New York Times]] |
|||
| date = March 21, 2009 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
[[PepsiCo]] recently put forth a "[[Throwback (drink)|throwback]]" version of Mountain Dew and Pepsi-Cola, designed to taste the same as these drinks did in the 1960s and 1970s. One aspect of the formulation is that sugar is used instead of HFCS. PepsiCo stated that HFCS and sugar are "essentially the same" and that the only reason HFCS was eschewed was in order to accurately reflect the taste of the past.<ref>February 26, 2009 [http://www.bevreview.com/2009/02/26/official-facts-about-pepsi-throwback-mountain-dew-throwback/ Official Facts about Pepsi Throwback & Mountain Dew Throwback] Bevreview.com</ref> [[Dr Pepper]] also released a "heritage" version of Dr Pepper Soda in 2009 that was made to the original formula and used beet sugar instead of HFCS. Since its establishment in 1891, the [[Dr Pepper]] bottling plant in Dublin, TX has continued to use the original formula sweetened with Imperial Cane Sugar (see [[Dublin Dr Pepper]]).<ref>[http://www.dublindrpepper.com/history.aspx Dublin Dr Pepper History] dublindrpepper.com</ref> In addition, the [[Coca-Cola]] bottling plant in the [[Lehigh Valley]], [[Pennsylvania]], and most [[Coca-Cola]] bottling plants in Europe also uses sucrose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lehighvalleycoke.com/default.asp |title=Coca-Cola Bottling Lehigh Valley |publisher=Lehighvalleycoke.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> |
|||
In May 2010, [[Hunt's]] removed high-fructose corn syrup from its [[ketchup]] due to buyer preference as a result of health concerns.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.news-record.com/content/2010/05/17/article/high_fructose_corn_syrup_cut_from_hunts_ketchup |
|||
|title=High-fructose corn syrup cut from Hunt's ketchup|work=[[News & Record]]|agency=Associated Press|date=2010-05-17|accessdate=2010-05-17}}</ref> |
|||
Popular campaigns by food activists and perception by a rapidly increasing faction of the consuming public in the United States that high-fructose corn syrup has harmful health effects continues to result in increasing reformulation of popular processed foods and reduced sales of HFCS, sales of which decreased by 9% in 2009 as compared with 2007.<ref>{{Cite news |
|||
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/02/business/02syrup.html |
|||
| title = For Corn Syrup, the Sweet Talk Gets Harder |
|||
| author = Melanie Warner |
|||
| work = [[The New York Times]] |
|||
| date = April 30, 2010 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
Ivan Royster of South Carolina, now residing in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]] began a [[Facebook]] page which has grown to over 140,000 fans, lobbying for the ban of HFCS in the U.S. An article recently published by ''[[Organic Connections]]'' magazine covered Ivan's protest and the Corn Refiners Association's counter to his efforts. The article includes links to Ivan's Facebook page and a [[High-fructose corn syrup#Bocarsly et al.|study]] on HFCS.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://organicconnectmag.com/wp/2010/05/the-impact-of-one-mans-outrage/ |title=The Impact of One Man’s Outrage, ''Organic Connections'' |publisher=Organicconnectmag.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> |
|||
===Proposed name change to corn sugar=== |
|||
On September 14, 2010, The Corn Refiners Association applied for permission to use the name "corn sugar" in place of high-fructose corn syrup on food labels for products sold in the United States. According to a press release, "Consumers need to know what is in their foods and where their foods come from and we want to be clear with them," said CRA president Audrae Erickson. "The term 'corn sugar' succinctly and accurately describes what this natural ingredient is and where it comes from – corn."<ref>[http://www.corn.org/corn-sugar-fda-petition.html ]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> |
|||
The association however did not provide clarification as to a change in what the FDA already considers corn sugar, i.e., [[dextrose]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/fcnDetailNavigation.cfm?rpt=scogsListing&id=94 |title=Database of Select Committee on GRAS Substances (SCOGS) Reviews |publisher=Accessdata.fda.gov |date=2006-10-31 |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> or any of the other corn-derived sugars such as [[corn syrup]] and [[maltodextrin]]. |
|||
[[Time magazine]] stated that the CRA's decision to change the name of HFCS was because HFCS had such a bad reputation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://healthland.time.com/2010/09/14/high-fructose-corn-syrup-might-get-a-makeover/ |title=High Fructose Corn Syrup Wants A New Name |author=Melnick, Meredith |date=September 14, 2010 |work=[[Time Magazine]] |accessdate=October 27, 2010}}</ref> |
|||
In response to the proposed name change, [[The New York Times]] ran an article asking nutrition experts what they would suggest as appropriate names for HFCS. Three of the five experts recommended alternate names, including [[Michael Pollan]] who suggested "enzymatically altered corn glucose". Dr [[Andrew Weil]] recommended not changing from HFCS, calling the term corn sugar "too vague" and the CRA's attempt to change HFCS's name "[[Orwellian]]". However Dr Barry Popkin felt that "corn sugar" was an appropriate term.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/23/help-rename-high-fructose-corn-syrup/ |title=Help Rename High-Fructose Corn Syrup - NYTimes.com |work= |accessdate=November 5, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/andrew-weil-md/fortunately-corn-sugar-ha_b_738324.html |title=Fortunately, 'Corn Sugar' Has Become a Sticky PR Mess |author=[[Andrew Weil]] |date=September 24, 2010 |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |accessdate=October 27, 2010}}</ref> |
|||
--> |
|||
==Fuentes== |
==Fuentes== |
||
{{listref}} |
{{listref}} |
||
Revisión del 01:15 31 ene 2011
El albíbar de maíz de alta frucosa o jarabe de maíz de alta frucosa también denominado sirape glucosa-fructosa[1][2][3] constituye cualquier almíbar del grupo de almíbares de maíz cuales hayan pasado por el procesamiento enzimático para covertir parte de su glucosa a fructosa para producir una dulzura deseada. El los Estado Unidos, las comidas tipicamente utilizan el almíbar de maíz de alta frucosa como el endulzante prinical en lugar de azúcar. En los EE.UU. es muy común en alimentos y bebidas preparadas como el pan, cereales, fiambres, yogures, sopas, aderizos.[4]
Health effects
Obesity
According to Anderson, the past 35 years have seen a rise in obesity as well as an increase in added sugars in commonly consumed foods. This increase in obesity is believed to be linked to the increased consumption of added sugars in food, specifically high-fructose corn syrup. Extensive research has been conducted to study high-fructose corn syrup and its effect on body weight. [5]
According to Ferder, Ferder & Inserra, fructose consumption and obesity are linked because fructose consumption does not cause an insulin response. This is important because, without an insulin response after consumption of a high-fructose food, there is no suppression of appetite which is normally induced by hyperinsulinemia after a meal. If there is no satiety or suppression of appetite occurring, then the person will continue eating or overeating as the case may be. This is linked with obesity because excess calories are converted and stored as fat, and when this process continues over a long period of time it results in obesity. [6] Forshee et al. (2007), argues that although there is valid information regarding fructose and its role in promoting obesity, there is no concrete and conclusive research to support the hypothesis that high-fructose corn syrup has the same obesity promoting properties as fructose. Although there are many studies that link fructose and obesity, there are very few studies that evaluate the relationship between HFCS and body weight increase or increased BMI. The only data that does link HFCS with obesity or weight gain comes from ecological data which is recognized as an insufficient source for the development of a true cause and effect relationship between HFCS and obesity. Though there is no current research that links HFCS consumption to obesity, the hypothesis that such a relationship exists should not be dismissed. Further research is needed on the subject in order to form an experimentally supported theory either supporting or refuting this hypothesis [7]
The Corn Refiners Association launched an aggressive advertising campaign to counter these criticisms, claiming that high-fructose corn syrup is natural since it's "made from grain corn" and "is nutritionally the same as honey and table sugar".[8]
Bocarsly et al.
Bocarsly et al.[9] completed a 2010 study where groups of 10 rats were given water sweetened with either 8% HFCS 12 hrs/day, 8% HFCS 24 hrs/day, or 10% sucrose 12 hrs/day (table sugar), all with ad libitum rodent chow, or only ad libitum rodent chow for a duration of 8 weeks. Then groups of 8 male rats were fed to compare diets with added sweetener in the form of HFCS to ones without added sweetener for 6 months. Then groups of 8 female rats were fed to compare diets with no or different kinds of added sweeteners to ones without for 7 months.
The set of rats on HFCS 12 hrs/day gained 48 percent more weight than a set of rats on sucrose 12 hrs/day in young males over the short term, but less in adult females over the long term. They also reported that the rats on HFCS 24 hrs/day did not gain a statistically significant amount of weight when compared to the rats on sucrose or chow only. Additionally, no differences in blood-glucose levels were observed.
Another study was conducted for 6–7 months, and fat pads were removed from the rats and weighed. Fat pads for rats on HFCS 12 hrs/day weighed significantly more than rats on chow only, but weighed less, but not significantly so, than rats on sucrose. Fat pads for rats on HFCS 24 hrs/day did not have a statistically different weight than rats on chow only. The rats fed with 24h HFCS also had higher triglyceride (TG) levels than rats fed 12h sucrose or chow only, indicating signs of metabolic syndrome. TG levels were not tested for rats fed 24h sucrose, and other studies indicate that sucrose and HFCS have similar post-metabolic profiles.[9] The study methodology has been criticized.[10]
Elliot et al.
Elliot et al.[11] implicate increased consumption of fructose (due primarily to the increased consumption of sugars but also partly due to the slightly higher fructose content of HFCS as compared to sucrose) in obesity and insulin resistance.
Ho et al.
Chi-Tang Ho et al. found that soft drinks sweetened with HFCS are "astonishingly high" in harmful carbonyl compounds, such as methylglyoxal, when compared to a diet soft drink control, and concluded that sucrose does not have the same tendency to produce these compounds.[12]
Stanhope et al.
A 2008 study in humans (supported in part with funding from Pepsico, Inc., the USDA, and the American Diabetes Association) analyzed the circulating levels of glucose, insulin, leptin, ghrelin, and triacylglycerol during a 24 hour period after consuming drinks containing HFCS or sucrose. The researchers concluded that the consumption of HFCS or sucrose did not yield differing metabolic effects.[13]
Tate & Lyle
Several studies funded by Tate & Lyle, a large corn refiner, the American Beverage Institute and the Corn Refiners Association,[14][15] have defended HFCS. Forshee et al. concluded "that HFCS does not appear to contribute to overweight and obesity any differently than do other energy sources."[16] Melanson et al. (2006), studied the effects of HFCS and sucrose sweetened drinks on blood glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin levels. They found no significant differences in any of these parameters.[17] Monsivais et al. (2007) compared the effects of isocaloric servings of colas sweetened with HFCS 42, HFCS 55, sucrose, and aspartame on satiety and subsequent energy intake.[18] They found that all of the drinks with caloric sweeteners produced similar satiety responses, and had the same effects on subsequent energy intake.
Bray et al.
One much-publicized 2004 study found an association between obesity and high HFCS consumption, especially from soft drinks.[19] However, this study provided only correlative data. One of the study coauthors, Dr. Barry M. Popkin, is quoted in The New York Times as saying, "I don't think there should be a perception that high-fructose corn syrup has caused obesity until we know more."[20] In the same article, Walter Willett, chair of the nutrition department of the Harvard School of Public Health, is quoted as saying, "There's no substantial evidence to support the idea that high-fructose corn syrup is somehow responsible for obesity .... If there was no high-fructose corn syrup, I don't think we would see a change in anything important." Willett also recommends drinking water over soft drinks containing sugars or high-fructose corn syrup.[21]
Mercury
A pilot study reported that some high-fructose corn syrup manufactured in the U.S. in 2005 contained trace amounts of mercury. The mercury appeared to come from preparations of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, two chemicals used to produce high-fructose corn syrup. These chemicals may have come from plants also specializing in industrial chlorine chlor-alkali using the mercury cell Castner-Kellner process, and may contain traces of mercury if this specific process is utilized. Mercury concentrations in the samples testing positive ranged from 0.012 μg/g to 0.570 μg/g (micrograms per gram). Nine of the twenty samples tested did contain measurable amounts of mercury.[22]
Metabolic Syndrome
According to the American Heart Association, metabolic syndrome is defined as the manifestation of numerous metabolic risk factors in one individual. These risk factors include high blood pressure, abdominal fat, high blood triglyceride levels, high uric acid levels, insulin resistance and a state of chronic inflammation. Individuals with metabolic syndrome are at a high risk for developing other related health issues such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. [23] Metabolic syndrome is becoming increasingly prevalent in the United States, it is estimated that over 50 million Americans have this condition. Due to the increased prevalence of this condition in recent years it is hypothesized that metabolic syndrome is linked to over consumption of high-fructose corn syrup. [24]
Similar to the research cited for obesity, the research that speaks to metabolic syndrome focuses mostly on the fructose aspect of high-fructose corn syrup. According to Nseir, Nassar and Assy (2010), the onset of metabolic syndrome is triggered by visceral adipose tissue which is linked to the consumption of fructose. Fructose is related to adiposity through the increase in blood triglyceride levels caused by the consumption of this monosaccharide. This increased adiposity leads to both obesity and metabolic syndrome.
[24]
According to Ferder, Ferder and Inserra (2010), a high-fructose diet induces inflammation and metabolic syndrome. In a study they performed on rats, the addition of 10% wt/volume fructose solution to the rat’s diet increased the inflammatory response in rats as well as the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the experimental groups. Although this research has not been performed on human subjects, the researchers believe that this study is a good indicator of relevance of the hypothesis that increased fructose intake leads to metabolic syndrome.
[6]
Forshee et al. (2007), states that although this research is valid for fructose consumption, it is not a good representation of the effects of HFCS as related to metabolic syndrome. This condition is closely linked with obesity, and both conditions cannot be correlated with the intake of high-fructose corn syrup without further research.[7]
Cardiovascular Disease
The Mayo Clinic defines cardiovascular disease as an umbrella term used to describe a wide variety of conditions affecting the heart. Currently, cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death in the world as well as in the United States. The overwhelming prevalence of cardiovascular disease makes it imperative that we fully understand its causes and work to prevent them. [25] One of the causes of cardiovascular disease is believed to be the consumption of high-fructose corn syrup. According to Parrish (2010), the metabolic processes involved in the breakdown of fructose can lead to a build up of uric acid. A build up of uric acid is one of the symptoms of metabolic syndrome which is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Parrish also references the link between fructose and blood triglyceride levels as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, specifically atherosclerosis. [26] According to Brown, Dulloo and Montani (2008), studies performed on animals have shown a link between sugar intake and cardiovascular disease, specifically hypertension, tachycardia and ventricular hypertrophy. In these studies, glucose was shown to be unrelated to hypertension, whereas fructose was shown to be the more damaging sugar component. An 8% solution of fructose was shown to induce left ventricle hypertrophy, hypertension and tachycardia, within a week of its substitution for drinking water, in populations of rats. Although these studies proved that overall sugar consumption due to the fructose component of sugar is linked with cardiovascular disease, they do not produce evidence that HFCS is more responsible for these relationships than sucrose or other sugars. [27]
Diabetes
According to Brown, Dulloo and Montani, fructose consumption is linked to the onset of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (2008). In healthy individuals after two weeks on a high-fructose diet a 25% reduction in insulin sensitivity was seen. Researchers believe that the relationship between HFCS and insulin resistance is dose dependent based on the fructose content, because in individuals who were given 3g of fructose per kg of body weight per day insulin resistance was observed, however a lower dose of fructose (1.5g per kg of body weight per day) did not produce the same insulin resistance. This research shows that limited sugar consumption (specifically the fructose component) does not lead to the onset of insulin resistance or diabetes, however higher amounts of sugar consumption is believed to lead to both insulin resistance as well as type 2 diabetes. [27]
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
According to Allocca and Selmi (2010), Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is defined as “the hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome and is currently among the most prominent causes of chronic liver disease in the United States, being found in up to 30% of the general population.” One of the main contributing factors to NAFLD is insulin resistance or an excessive intake of carbohydrates or fats leading to an elevation in blood glucose, insulin and triglycerides. [28] Mariangela Allocca and Carlo Selmi (2010), state that unlike the previously discussed conditions where research is primarily focused on the fructose component of HFCS or sucrose, NAFLD is related to both the fructose and the glucose components of both sugars. First, fructose is linked with NAFLD through an elevation in fructose consumption producing elevated blood triglyceride levels. As chronically elevated blood triglyceride levels are one of the main factors contributing to risk for NAFLD, so high-fructose consumption, which produces these elevated levels, is also a risk factor for NAFLD. Animal studies, specifically those performed on fructose-fed mice, have shown that chronic fructose consumption leads to lipid accumulation in the liver. “The available experimental and human data strongly support the notion that fructose avoidance should be encouraged in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.” [28] According to Allocca and Selmi (2010), glucose consumption is a key factor in the development in NAFLD as well as fructose. Glucose plays a role in the development of this condition because blood glucose concentrations that travel to the liver can either be converted to glycogen or free fatty acids. Glucose is converted to free fatty acids in the liver in the process of insulin-stimulated de novo lipogenesis, which results in the accumulation of these lipids in the liver. This build up of lipids in the liver leads to increased production and secretion of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) which eventually results in an inability to prevent NAFLD through problems maintaining fat balance. Although, NAFLD involves both the glucose and the fructose components of HFCS, there has been no conclusive research linking HFCS consumption to the onset of NAFLD more so than sucrose or other sugar consumption. [28]
Apiculture
In the United States, high-fructose corn syrup has become a sucrose replacement for honey bees. In 2009, a study by Leblanc et al. found that at temperatures above 45 grados Celsius (113 °F) HFCS rapidly begins to form hydroxymethylfurfural, which is toxic to the honey bees being fed HFCS.[29]
Public relations
Labeling as "natural"
In May 2006, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) threatened to file a lawsuit against Cadbury Schweppes for labeling 7 Up as "All Natural" or "100% Natural",[30] despite the presence of high-fructose corn syrup. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has no general definition of "natural"; however, FDA regulations define "natural flavoring" to include products of vegetables.[31] Current FDA policy is that it does not object to labeling HFCS as "natural."[32] The CSPI also claim that HFCS is not a "natural" ingredient due to the high level of processing and the use of at least one genetically modified (GMO) enzyme required to produce it. On January 12, 2007, Cadbury Schweppes agreed to stop calling 7 Up "All Natural".[33] They now label it "100% Natural Flavors".[34]
HFCS advertisements
In September 2008, the Corn Refiners Association[35] launched a series of United States television advertisements that stated that HFCS "is made from corn", "is natural" (changed from previously-stated "doesn't have artificial ingredients"), "has the same calories as sugar or honey", "is nutritionally the same as sugar", and "is fine in moderation", in the hopes of keeping consumers from avoiding HFCS products. The ads feature actors portraying roles in upbeat domestic situations with sugary foods, with one actor disparaging a food's HFCS content but being unable to explain why, and another actor questioning the comments with these claims. Finally, the ads each make reference to the Corn Refiners Association website.[36]
Michael Jacobson, executive director of the Center for Science in the Public Interest, called the advertisements "deceptive",[37] stating: "High-fructose corn syrup starts out as cornstarch, which is chemically or enzymatically degraded to glucose and some short polymers of glucose. Another enzyme is then used to convert varying fractions of glucose into fructose...High-fructose corn syrup just doesn't exist in nature."[38]
Since HFCS is present in a staggering amount of food in the US, and in most foods marketed to children, there are doubts as to whether it can be consumed in moderation.
...unless you're making a concerted effort to avoid it, it's pretty difficult to consume high-fructose corn syrup in moderation[38]
Moves back to sugar
A March 21, 2009 The New York Times article said that some food companies and restaurants were using sugar in their product as a selling point, in order to attract customers who prefer not to consume high-fructose corn syrup. As one example, the article cited Jason's Deli, a chain of delis with 200 restaurants in 27 states. The chain had replaced high-fructose corn syrup with sugar in everything except a few soft drinks. Daniel Helfman, a spokesman for the deli chain, was quoted as saying, "Part of this is a huge rebellion against HFCS... but part of it is taste."[39]
PepsiCo recently put forth a "throwback" version of Mountain Dew and Pepsi-Cola, designed to taste the same as these drinks did in the 1960s and 1970s. One aspect of the formulation is that sugar is used instead of HFCS. PepsiCo stated that HFCS and sugar are "essentially the same" and that the only reason HFCS was eschewed was in order to accurately reflect the taste of the past.[40] Dr Pepper also released a "heritage" version of Dr Pepper Soda in 2009 that was made to the original formula and used beet sugar instead of HFCS. Since its establishment in 1891, the Dr Pepper bottling plant in Dublin, TX has continued to use the original formula sweetened with Imperial Cane Sugar (see Dublin Dr Pepper).[41] In addition, the Coca-Cola bottling plant in the Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania, and most Coca-Cola bottling plants in Europe also uses sucrose.[42]
In May 2010, Hunt's removed high-fructose corn syrup from its ketchup due to buyer preference as a result of health concerns.[43]
Popular campaigns by food activists and perception by a rapidly increasing faction of the consuming public in the United States that high-fructose corn syrup has harmful health effects continues to result in increasing reformulation of popular processed foods and reduced sales of HFCS, sales of which decreased by 9% in 2009 as compared with 2007.[44]
Ivan Royster of South Carolina, now residing in Raleigh, North Carolina began a Facebook page which has grown to over 140,000 fans, lobbying for the ban of HFCS in the U.S. An article recently published by Organic Connections magazine covered Ivan's protest and the Corn Refiners Association's counter to his efforts. The article includes links to Ivan's Facebook page and a study on HFCS.[45]
Proposed name change to corn sugar
On September 14, 2010, The Corn Refiners Association applied for permission to use the name "corn sugar" in place of high-fructose corn syrup on food labels for products sold in the United States. According to a press release, "Consumers need to know what is in their foods and where their foods come from and we want to be clear with them," said CRA president Audrae Erickson. "The term 'corn sugar' succinctly and accurately describes what this natural ingredient is and where it comes from – corn."[46]
The association however did not provide clarification as to a change in what the FDA already considers corn sugar, i.e., dextrose[47] or any of the other corn-derived sugars such as corn syrup and maltodextrin.
Time magazine stated that the CRA's decision to change the name of HFCS was because HFCS had such a bad reputation.[48]
In response to the proposed name change, The New York Times ran an article asking nutrition experts what they would suggest as appropriate names for HFCS. Three of the five experts recommended alternate names, including Michael Pollan who suggested "enzymatically altered corn glucose". Dr Andrew Weil recommended not changing from HFCS, calling the term corn sugar "too vague" and the CRA's attempt to change HFCS's name "Orwellian". However Dr Barry Popkin felt that "corn sugar" was an appropriate term.[49][50]
-->
Fuentes
- ↑ Informed Choices Blog, see "Edit:" at bottom of article: The Sweet Life: High Fructose Corn Syrup/Isoglucose
- ↑ Glucose fructose syrup: the crack of sweeteners Netmums
- ↑ Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada: The Canadian Soft Drink Industry "Glucose/fructose is a generic term for high fructose corn syrup or HFCS". Retrieved November 5, 2009.
- ↑ David Wallinga, M.D., Janelle Sorensen, Pooja Mottl, Brian Yablon, M.D. (January 2009). Not So Sweet: Missing Mercury and High Fructose Corn Syrup. Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy. Consultado el 1 de septiembre de 2010.
- ↑ G.H. Anderson (2007). «Much ado about high-fructose corn syrup in beverages: The meat of the matter». American Journal of clinical Nutrition 86: 1577-1578.
- ↑ a b L. Ferder, M.D. Ferder, & F. Inserra (2010). «The role of high-fructose corn syrup in metabolic syndrome and hypertension». Current Hypertension Report 12: 105-112.
- ↑ a b R. Forshee, M.L. Storey, D.B. Allison, W.M. Glinsmann, G.L. Hein, D.R. Lineback, S.A. Miller, et al., J.S. White. (2007). «A critical examination of the evidence relating high-fructose corn syrup and weight gain». Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 47: 561-582.
- ↑ «A Balanced Diet: Teach Your Children the ABC's of Healthy Eating». sweetsurprise.com. Consultado el 17 de enero de 2011.
- ↑ a b Bocarsly ME, Powell ES, Avena NM, Hoebel BG (February de 2010). «High-fructose corn syrup causes characteristics of obesity in rats: Increased body weight, body fat and triglyceride levels». Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 97 (1): 101-6. PMID 20219526. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2010.02.012.
- ↑ «HFCS makes rats fat? ''Marion Nestle''». Foodpolitics.com. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ Elliott, Sharon S; Nancy L Keim, Judith S Stern, Karen Teff and Peter J Havel (April de 2004). «Fructose, weight gain, and the insulin resistance syndrome1». Am J Clin Nutr 79 (4): 537-43. PMID 15051594.
|number=y|issue=redundantes (ayuda) - ↑ Soda Warning? New Study Supports Link Between Diabetes, High-fructose Corn Syrup Released: Mon 13-Aug-2007, 16:30 ET Source: American Chemical Society (ACS) - Newswise
- ↑ Stanhope KL, Griffen SC, Bair BR, Swarbrick MM, Keim NL, Havel PJ (May de 2008). «Twenty-four-hour endocrine and metabolic profiles following consumption of high-fructose corn syrup-, sucrose-, fructose-, and glucose-sweetened beverages with meals». The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87 (5): 1194-203. PMID 18469239.
- ↑ «online abstracts2006 internet forfait haut at eb2006-online.com» (PDF). Archivado desde el original el 2 de septiembre de 2006. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ Similarities Between HFCS and Sucrose Revealed
- ↑ Forshee RA; Storey, ML; Allison, DB; Glinsmann, WH; Hein, GL; Lineback, DR; Miller, SA; Nicklas, TA et al. (2007). «A critical examination of the evidence relating high-fructose corn syrup and weight gain» (PDF). Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 47 (6): 561-82. PMID 17653981. doi:10.1080/10408390600846457.
|number=y|issue=redundantes (ayuda); - ↑ Melanson K et al. Eating Rate and Satiation. Obesity Society (NAASO) 2006 Annual Meeting. October 20–24, 2006, Hynes Convention Center, Boston, Massachusetts
- ↑ Monsivais P et al. (2007). «Sugars and satiety: does the type of sweetener make a difference?». American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86 (1): 116-123. PMID 17616770.
|number=y|issue=redundantes (ayuda) - ↑ Bray, George A.; Samara Joy Nielsen and Barry M. Popkin (April 1, 2004). «Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity». American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79 (4): 537-543. PMID 15051594.
- ↑ Warner, Melanie (July 2, 2006). «A Sweetener With a Bad Rap». The New York Times. Consultado el 17 de noviembre de 2007.
- ↑ Coca-Cola & The American Beverage Ass. to sell the Brooklyn BridgeUso incorrecto de la plantilla enlace roto (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).
- ↑
Dufault, Renee; LeBlanc, Blaise; Schnoll, Roseanne; et al. (2009). «Mercury from chlor-alkali plants: measured concentrations in food product sugar». Environmental Health 8: 2. PMC 2637263. PMID 19171026. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-8-2. Consultado el August 9, 2009. Resumen divulgativo – Medscape Today (27 de enero de 2009). «Mercury in any form – either as water-soluble inorganic salt, a lipid-soluble organic mercury compound, or as metallic mercury- is an extremely potent neurological toxin."
"...it is currently impossible to establish a no adverse-effect-level for mercury in humans.» - ↑ «Metabolic Syndrome». American Heart Association. 2010. Consultado el 1 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ a b W. Nseir, F. Nassar and N. Assy (2010). «Soft drink consumption and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease». World Journal of Gastroenterology 16 (21): 2579-2588.
- ↑ «Heart Disease». The Mayo Clinic. January 28, 2009. Consultado el 1 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ L.A.W. Parrish (2010). «How does the consumption of fructose and high-fructose corn syrup impact the health of children and adolescents». Pediatric Endocrinology Nursing Society 6 (6): 459-460.
- ↑ a b C.M. Brown, A.G. Dulloo, & J.P. Montani (2008). «Sugary drinks in the pathogenesis of obesity and cardiovascular disease». International Journal of Obesity 32: S28-34.
- ↑ a b c M. Allocca & C. Selmi (2010). «Emerging nutritional treatments for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease». Nutrition, diet therapy, and the liver: 131-146.
- ↑ Por favor, pon la referencia que aparece aquí.
- ↑ «CSPI to Sue Cadbury Schweppes over "All Natural" 7UP». Center for Science in the Public Interest. Consultado el 17 de noviembre de 2007.
- ↑ «21 Code of Federal Regulations § 101.22». Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ Letter to Corn Refiners Association, July 3, 2008Uso incorrecto de la plantilla enlace roto (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).
- ↑ Lorraine Heller (15 de enero de 2007). «Cadbury scraps 'natural' label on 7UP». Consultado el 15 de diciembre de 2008.
- ↑ «7UP, Now 100% Natural Flavors». Dr Pepper/Seven Up. 2007. Consultado el 24 de septiembre de 2007.
- ↑ «Corn Refiners Association homepage». Corn.org. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ http://www.sweetsurprise.com/, YouTube, YouTube
- ↑ Jacobson, Michael F (June 23, 2008). «Corn Refiners’ Ad Campaign Called Deceptive*». Center for Science in the Public Interest. Consultado el June 29, 2010.
- ↑ a b McLaughlin, Lisa (September 17, 2008). «Is High-Fructose Corn Syrup Really Good for You?». Time Magazine. Consultado el June 19, 2010.
- ↑ Kim severson (March 21, 2009). «Sugar Is Back on Food Labels, This Time as a Selling Point». The New York Times.
- ↑ February 26, 2009 Official Facts about Pepsi Throwback & Mountain Dew Throwback Bevreview.com
- ↑ Dublin Dr Pepper History dublindrpepper.com
- ↑ «Coca-Cola Bottling Lehigh Valley». Lehighvalleycoke.com. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ «High-fructose corn syrup cut from Hunt's ketchup». News & Record. Associated Press. 17 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 17 de mayo de 2010.
- ↑ Melanie Warner (April 30, 2010). «For Corn Syrup, the Sweet Talk Gets Harder». The New York Times.
- ↑ «The Impact of One Man’s Outrage, ''Organic Connections''». Organicconnectmag.com. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ [1]Uso incorrecto de la plantilla enlace roto (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).
- ↑ «Database of Select Committee on GRAS Substances (SCOGS) Reviews». Accessdata.fda.gov. 31 de octubre de 2006. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2010.
- ↑ Melnick, Meredith (September 14, 2010). «High Fructose Corn Syrup Wants A New Name». Time Magazine. Consultado el October 27, 2010.
- ↑ «Help Rename High-Fructose Corn Syrup - NYTimes.com». Consultado el November 5, 2010.
- ↑ Andrew Weil (September 24, 2010). «Fortunately, 'Corn Sugar' Has Become a Sticky PR Mess». The Huffington Post. Consultado el October 27, 2010.
Enlaces exteriores
- The Bitter Truth
- Plantilla:Dmoz
- Not only Sugar is Sweet
- High Fructose Corn Syrup and Diet Facts in defense of HFCS by the Corn Refiners Association, the national trade association representing the corn refining industry of the United States.